Skip to main content
  • Research article
  • Open access
  • Published:

Clinically significant changes in burden and depression among dementia caregivers following nursing home admission

Abstract

Background

Although extensive research exists on informal long-term care, little work has examined the clinical significance of transitions in family caregiving due to a lack of established clinical cut-points on key measures. The objectives of this study were to determine whether clinically significant changes in symptoms of burden and depression occur among caregivers within 12 months of nursing home admission (NHA) of their relatives with dementia, and to identify key predictors of clinically persistent burden and depression in the first year after institutionalization.

Methods

Secondary longitudinal analysis of dementia caregivers were recruited from eight catchment areas in the United States with 6- and 12-month post-placement follow-up data. The sample included data on 1,610 dementia caregivers with pre- and six-month post-placement data and 1,116 with pre-placement, six-month, and 12-month post-placement data. Burden was measured with a modified version of the Zarit Burden Inventory. Depressive symptoms were assessed with the Geriatric Depression Scale.

Results

Chi-square analyses found significant (P < .05) reductions in the number of caregivers who reported clinically significant burden and depressive symptoms after NHA compared to pre-placement. Logistic regression models revealed that wives and daughters were most likely to experience clinically persistent burden and husbands were most likely to experience clinically significant depression after NHA.

Conclusions

In addition to suggesting that clinically significant decreases in caregiver burden and depression are likely to occur following institutionalization, the results reveal particular subsets of caregivers who are at continued risk of distress. Such findings can facilitate development of screening processes to identify families at-risk following institutionalization.

Peer Review reports

Background

Over 50 million individuals provide unpaid care to adults who are disabled or ill http://www.caregiver.org. The prominence of informal care in the U.S. has led to a large number of studies describing family caregivers [1], examining stress in family caregiving [2, 3], and evaluating the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions and respite services for caregiving families [4–6]. As chronic illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease or other dementias progress, critical health transitions (diagnosis, institutionalization, bereavement) may exacerbate negative health outcomes for persons with dementia or their family caregivers. Nursing home admission (NHA) in particular is a transition that is considered a key clinical marker of dementia progression [7].

Although extensive research exists on informal long-term care, little work has examined the clinical significance of transitions or other phenomena due to a lack of established clinical cut-points on key caregiving measures [8]. This has made it difficult to interpret results or effects of interventions for dementia caregivers. The high prevalence of dementia among nursing home residents (69% of all nursing home residents suffer from some form of cognitive impairment) [9] may place ongoing care demands onto family members. Several studies have noted that families continue to provide various types of informal (that is, unpaid) assistance to relatives in nursing homes (NHs). Such assistance ranges from visits, to care provision, to staff interaction [10–12]. For these reasons, it would be valuable to determine whether NHA has a clinically significant impact on caregiving outcomes and to identify those variables that predict clinically significant levels of burden and depression among caregivers after NHA. Using a large, multi-regional, and longitudinal data set of dementia family caregivers, the present study sought to: 1) determine whether clinically significant reports of burden or depressive symptoms change within 12 months of NHA, and 2) identify factors prior to NHA that predict clinically persistent burden and depression within the first year following institutionalization. These insights will serve to guide the development of effective intervention strategies that offer psychosocial support to dementia caregivers grappling with the potential challenges of NHA.

Caregiving and institutionalization

Systematic reviews have noted that caregiving burden (or feelings of being overwhelmed with various facets of care), emotional fatigue, and perceptions of entrapment in the caregiving role are at least as important as care recipients' functional and cognitive decline in predicting risk of NH entry [13]. Longitudinal analyses of dementia caregiving make clear that caregiving does not "end" with the institutionalization of a cognitively impaired elderly relative [14]. Instead, family members remained engaged in the lives of institutionalized relatives. While the provision of "hands-on" technical care such as ambulation and transferring are often assumed by direct care workers in the NH setting, family involvement continues and ranges from regular visits, to ongoing provision of more instrumental forms of direct care (such as transportation and financial management), to interaction with staff to ensure proper care is delivered [12, 15–18]. Some studies have found that various measures of caregiving stress or depressive symptoms remain stable, or in some cases, increase with NHA [19–23]. Contradictory findings from other studies suggest that institutionalization may result in decreased stress or depressive symptoms following NH placement as well as improved physical health for caregivers (for example, somatic symptoms, biomarkers of cardiovascular health) [20, 24–27]. Some reasons for these discrepant findings include the fairly small samples included in prior research studies, which may have limited the statistical power necessary to detect significant changes in key caregiving outcomes across the NH transition. Similarly, variation in when caregivers are assessed prior to and after NHA (that is, length of follow-up) may have also obscured both the short- and long-term implications of institutionalization on dementia caregivers' stress, depressive symptoms, or other dependent variables.

Studies of dementia caregiving have identified several predictors of depressive symptoms and burden following institutionalization. Behavior problems of care recipients prior to or at the time of NHA appear to predict greater caregiver burden and reduced family involvement following NH placement (for example, visits, care provision) [22, 28, 29]. Spouse caregivers appear more likely to report greater burden, depressive symptoms, and dissatisfaction after NHA than adult child or other caregivers [21, 30]. Wives in particular tend to invest greater emotional resources in their roles as "caregivers," and thus may be less willing to relinquish day-to-day care responsibility to a NH and are more involved in care delivery and supervision when compared to other types of caregivers [2, 12, 31, 32]. Family caregivers' lack of satisfaction with help received from others [21, 33], the increased functional or cognitive impairment of the relative [33, 34], and less involvement with the relative following NHA [34] also appear to be associated with greater distress in caregivers after institutionalization.

Research focus

Most caregiving research has failed to identify the clinical significance of reported results [8]. Many measures of caregiver stress or well-being do not have established cut-points signifying the presence of clinically relevant symptoms. This has made it difficult to interpret empirical associations between predictor variables and outcomes or determine whether an intervention has had a clinically meaningful effect. The present study advances current research on dementia caregiving and NHA in two ways. First, we developed clinically significant cut-points and analyzed data on the prevalence of clinically significant burden and depression prior to and up to 6- and 12-months post-placement. This initial analysis made it possible to estimate the proportion of caregivers who experienced clinically significant burden and depression in the months following NHA. Given the size of the sample and the amount of longitudinal, post-placement data available, this study aimed to reconcile conflicting results on changes in key caregiving outcomes prior to and following NHA. The second objective was to determine what pre-placement factors predicted clinically persistent burden and depressive symptoms among caregivers up to one year following institutionalization. Variables considered in the predictive analysis included those shown in previous studies to predict NHA in dementia and indicators derived from post-placement analyses of caregiver depression and stress [21, 22, 28, 29, 33, 34]. Per other conceptualizations of stress in dementia caregiving [35], pre-placement burden was considered a predictor of post-placement depressive symptoms, as emotional appraisals of dementia care demands (that is, burden) are postulated to influence more global psychological outcomes (that is, depression). Since it is considered a global outcome of dementia caregiving, pre-placement depressive symptoms were not considered as a predictor of post-placement burden in subsequent analyses.

This study extends our previous research examining changes in caregiver burden and depressive symptoms after institutionalization. In a prior study [31] we used the full 6- and 12-month post-placement cohorts of the data set reported here to examine trajectories of change in burden in depressive symptoms prior to and up to one year after NHA. This previous work noted that the amount of change prior to and after institutionalization appeared to drop below clinical thresholds of burden 6- and 12-months following NHA. These intriguing initial findings led to the analyses reported in this study, which is a comprehensive, more focused analysis of clinically relevant change in burden and depressive symptoms after the NH transition. More specifically, this study identifies those factors that resulted in clinically persistent levels of burden and depression prior to and up to one year following NHA when compared to those who fell below these clinical thresholds (thus resulting in a more interpretable comparison). For these reasons the current study builds on our prior work and serves as an independent, notable contribution to understanding how families adapt emotionally and psychologically to NHA. Specifically, understanding factors that are linked to ongoing and clinically relevant burden and depressive symptoms during institutionalization could help social workers, nursing staff (for example, directors of nursing, registered nurses, certified nurse assistants), and medical directors to identify caregivers who are in need of support during NH entry, thus helping to facilitate families' adaptations to a relative's institutionalization.

Methods

The Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration Evaluation

The Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration Evaluation (MADDE) was a randomized controlled evaluation of a combined case management and Medicare-reimbursed home care benefit service that was implemented in eight communities in the U.S. A detailed description of MADDE is provided in a supplemental issue of Health Services Research [36]. Briefly, to be eligible for MADDE, care recipients (a) had a physician-certified diagnosis of an irreversible dementia, (b) were enrolled or eligible for Parts A and B of Medicare, (c) had service needs, and (d) resided at home at baseline in one of the eight MADDE catchment areas. After 60 days in a NH, MADDE service benefits were terminated. Nursing home admissions for less than 60 days that resulted in community discharge were recorded in MADDE but were not counted as "permanent" institutionalization episodes [37]. The caregiver was defined as the relative who provided the most help to the person with dementia. The baseline interview was in-person and biannual follow-up interviews were conducted via telephone over a three-year period. Interviews were administered up to 12 months following NHA. This study received Institutional Review Board exempt approval from the University of Minnesota Human Subjects Committee (IRB# 0611E96989).

Sample

The baseline sample of MADDE included 5,831 caregivers and care recipients with dementia. Over 40% (43.9%) of the persons with dementia were institutionalized during the three-year follow-up period. MADDE collected data on 1,610 caregivers six months after NHA (the six-month post-placement panel) and 1,116 caregivers 12 months following NH entry (the 12-month post-placement panel). The pre-placement interview was the last interview conducted prior to NHA. Baseline and outcomes data are presented in Table 1 for the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels.

Table 1 Descriptive Information, 6-month (N = 1,610) and 12-month (1,116) Post-Placement Cohorts.

Measures

Outcomes

The outcome variables were caregiver depressive symptoms, measured with the 15-item Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) [38] and caregiver burden, measured with a 7-item short form of the Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI) [39]. Based on prior sensitivity and specificity analyses on the 15-item version of the GDS [40, 41], a score of greater than or equal to six on the GDS was used to identify dementia caregivers suffering from clinically significant depression.

A clinically established cut-off for burden is less clear. For these reasons, we calculated a receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve using the full baseline sample of MADDE (N = 5,831) to develop a potential cut-off score at which sensitivity and specificity (or the true negative rate) for identifying the clinically established cut-off for depression described above were optimized [31]. A cut-off score of 13.50 on the ZBI (range = 0.00 to 28.00) was found to simultaneously maximize the sensitivity (correctly identifying 77% of the cases with depression) and specificity (identifying 71% who do not have depression) of the GDS. The area under the ROC curve was a high proportion of the overall space (.814) [42]. In subsequent analyses caregivers who reported a ZBI score of 13.00 or higher (as non-integer summed scores are not possible on the ZBI) were considered to have a clinically significant burden.

A second objective of the current study was to identify predictors of persistently high depression or burden following the institutionalization transition. Persistent burden and persistent depression were operationalized as remaining at or above the clinical significance cut-points of burden and depression at the pre- and post-placement assessment intervals.

Dementia severity

Case managers administered the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) [43] to care recipients at baseline to measure cognitive status. Frequency of care recipient behavior problems was assessed with the Memory and Behavior Problems Checklist, completed by caregivers at pre-placement [44].

Functional impairment

Measures of care recipients' pre-placement functional status included dependence in activity of daily living tasks (ADLs) [45] and instrumental activity of daily living tasks (IADLs) [46]. After caregivers reported whether care recipients needed no help, some help, or maximum help to perform each ADL or IADL, caregivers then indicated whether the care recipient was receiving enough help for that particular ADL or IADL (yes = 1; no = 0). These unmet need items for each ADL or IADL task was then summed at pre-placement [47]. The number of hours caregivers typically spent providing assistance to care recipients was also included at pre-placement (primary informal caregiving hours).

Resources

Three community-based services (chore, personal care, and adult day care) and overnight hospital use for the care recipient were reported by caregivers at pre-placement. Secondary caregiving hours were measured at pre-placement by asking respondents how many hours they typically received help from other family members or friends in providing assistance to the care recipient (secondary caregiving hours). Other resource variables considered at pre-placement included caregivers' self-reported health status and caregivers' own functional dependency as measured by five ADLs and eight IADLs.

Analysis

Objective 1: Description of clinically significant burden and depression across NHA

The first analysis examined changes in clinically significant burden and depression at the pre- and post-placement intervals. Chi-square analyses were conducted to determine whether there were statistically significant changes (P < .05) in the percentage of caregivers who reported clinically significant burden at pre-placement compared to caregivers at the 6-month and 12-month post-placement interviews. A parallel set of chi-square analyses were conducted to examine changes in clinically significant depression.

Objective 2: Predicting persistent burden and depression across NHA

The second objective was to identify those pre-placement variables that accounted for persistent burden or depressive symptoms in the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels. We used separate logistic regression models to identify variables that were predictive of persistent burden or depression up to 6 and 12 months after NHA using all of the variables described above as predictors. In order to ensure a relevant comparison, the reference category consisted of caregivers who scored below the clinical threshold of burden or depression at pre-and post-placement. All background/contextual, dementia severity, functional impairment, and resource indicators were included as independent variables. Since conceptual models of dementia caregiving often position emotional stressors as predictors of global outcomes such as depression [35], pre-placement burden was included as an additional predictor of persistent depressive symptoms in the logistic regression models.

Results

Objective 1: Description of clinically significant burden and depressive symptoms across the placement transition

The percentage of caregivers who reported clinically significant burden decreased from pre-placement to the six-month post-placement follow-up (pre-placement burden = 52.9%, six-month post-placement burden = 28.3%; df = 1; χ 2 = 162.30; P < .001). Although statistically significant, the reduction in clinically significant depressive symptoms up to six months after NHA was less pronounced (pre-placement depressive symptoms = 35.8%, six-month post-placement depressive symptoms = 31.1%; df = 1; χ 2 = 315.65; P < .001). Similar findings occurred in the 12-month post-placement panel. The percentage of caregivers who indicated clinically significant burden dropped considerably from pre-placement to the 12-month post-placement interview (pre-placement burden = 52.9%, 12-month post-placement burden = 16.7%; df = 1; χ 2 = 92.18; P < .001). Significant, although smaller, reductions also occurred in reports of clinically significant depression up to one year after NHA (pre-placement depressive symptoms = 36.2%; 12-month post-placement depressive symptoms = 27.2%; df = 1; χ 2 = 191.66; P < .001).

Objective 2: Predicting persistent burden and depression across NHA

Persistent burden

Table 2 provides the results of the logistic regression models predicting persistent burden up to 6 and 12 months post-placement, respectively. The models accounted for 49% of the variance in the 6-month post-placement panel and 63% of the variance in the 12-month post-placement panel (Nagelkerke R 2 = .49 and .63, respectively). Several variables were significantly related (P < .05) to persistent burden across the post-placement panels, including site (caregivers from Florida or Oregon), race/ethnicity (Caucasian), employment, longer duration of care, more time spent in at-home care, greater unmet need, and more frequent behavior problems. With each point increase in subjective health impairment, caregivers were 2.36 and 3.01 times more likely to report persistent burden in the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels, respectively. Gender and kin relationship in particular appeared to have a strong influence on persistent burden; when compared to other caregivers, women reported more persistent burden than men. Wives were over eight times more likely to experience persistent burden in the 6-month post-placement panel (OR = 8.84) and even more likely to do so in the 12-month post-placement panel (OR = 29.16). Daughters also appeared more than twice as likely to indicate persistent burden when compared to other caregivers in the 6-month (OR = 2.75) and 12-month post-placement panels (OR = 3.89).

Table 2 Predictors of persistent burden in the 6-month and 12-month Post-Placement Panels (N = 1,015; 560 respectively)a

Persistent depression

Table 3 presents the results of the logistic regression models predicting persistently high symptoms of depression in the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels. The post-placement models accounted for a considerable amount of variance in persistent depression in the 6-month (Nagelkerke R 2 = .64) and 12-month (Nagelkerke R 2 = .71) post-placement panels. Husbands were 4.87 times and 5.89 times more likely to indicate persistent depression than other caregivers in the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels, respectively. Caregivers who reported a point increase in subjective health impairment were 2.11 and 2.39 times more likely to indicate persistent depression in the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels, respectively. In addition, caregivers in New York were less likely to indicate persistent depression in the 6-month and 12-month post-placement panels (OR = .33; OR = .08, respectively).

Table 3 Predictors of persistent depression in the 6-month and 12-month Post-Placement Panels (N = 1,208; 710 respectively)a

Discussion

The proportion of caregivers who reported clinically significant levels of burden prior to placement was dramatically reduced 6 and 12 months following NHA. A similar change occurred in clinically significant depression following institutionalization, although the reduction was less pronounced. Nursing homes assume many of the challenging care tasks that informal caregivers had provided. Specifically, NHs play a strong "substitution" role as formal care providers (staff) assume the care responsibilities formerly provided by informal caregivers (family members) [48, 49]. This may lead to considerable emotional and psychological relief for family members.

This is not to say that some family caregivers do not experience distress or challenges during NHA. While several sociodemographic and contextual characteristics predicted persistent, clinically significant burden across the 6- and 12-month post-placement panels, kin relationship emerged as a potent influence. Female caregivers, and wives in particular, appeared far more likely to experience persistent burden following institutionalization. Female caregivers generally are more involved in day-to-day hands-on care provision and may also have a more difficult time relinquishing this role to 24-hour NH care staff; for example, wives tend to indicate more emotional investment in their caregiving roles when compared to other caregivers and also provide more direct care than husbands at pre-placement. This may continue after institutionalization (for example, supervising the care tasks performed by NH staff, playing an advocacy role for the institutionalized husband to ensure proper care is delivered in the NH) [2, 12, 31, 32]. Therefore, stress may not abate with NHA for female caregivers who are heavily engaged in the emotional and direct, day-to-day care challenges associated with assisting a relative with dementia. Caregivers who indicated more frequent behavior problems in their relatives, provided more hands-on care, reported unmet needs pertaining to functional dependence of care recipients, and struggled with health or functional impairments of their own were also more likely to experience burden following NH placement. It may be that care recipients with more severe functional or behavioral impairments are more difficult for NH staff to manage successfully, so much so that their families feel compelled to remain involved in the care of institutionalized relatives and to interact regularly with NH staff to ensure proper care is delivered [10, 11]. Such involvement is likely difficult to maintain when caregivers suffer from their own health impairments, thus leading to elevated burden after NHA.

Husbands, on the other hand, were particularly susceptible to post-placement depression across the 6- and 12-month panels. Husbands may have difficulty in adapting to and confronting the emotional loss of a partner and disruption to the role of husband in the context of institutional placement. Moreover, husbands may be less likely to have a reservoir of social support to rely on during NHA. These factors could lead to increased depressive symptomatology. We also found that caregivers with greater subjective health impairment and pre-placement burden were more likely to experience persistent depression across post-placement panels, which adds to the evidence suggesting that caregivers with physical or emotional challenges during at-home care may have continued psychological difficulty with the NH transition. It is possible that caregivers with emotional distress and health impairments may have felt increased guilt when they had to relinquish at-home care responsibilities due to these issues.

We have noted in our prior research that the provision of intensive, individualized consultation can help mitigate reports of burden or depressive symptoms among dementia caregivers [24]. It appears that the expanded case management model of MADDE did not exert a significant influence on caregivers' depressive symptomatology or burden during the NH transition. Consideration of the descriptive findings here as well as our prior clinical work reiterates what is currently best-practice in dementia caregiving intervention: multi-component psychosocial interventions that combine individualized consultation with family sessions and ongoing support often exert the greatest benefits in improving dementia caregiver outcomes, delaying NHA, or enhancing dementia caregivers' experiences across key transition points [6, 50]. Alternatively, case management/referral models such as the MADDE approach tend to yield less consistent effects on such outcomes.

Although this analysis had at its disposal a large, multi-regional data set, there are several limitations that are important to consider. One is that there is no specific information about the type of care received in the NH by the care recipient, extent of family care provided to cognitively impaired care recipients following institutionalization, or post-placement measures of care recipients' dementia severity or functional status. In addition, MADDE data were collected in the early 1990 s. Since then a number of developments have occurred in long-term care, such as market availability and the emergence of assisted living, which may influence families' placement decisions. Although the MADDE data set is large, it did not rely on probability sampling techniques. Since to our knowledge no "gold standard" clinical rating of burden currently exists [51], we had to rely on the GDS to establish the clinically significant cut-point for burden. The sample size is also largely Caucasian. While this is expected due to lower NH placement rates frequently reported by African-American and Latino caregivers [52], such disparity may still influence generalizability. As noted by Jacobson and colleagues [53], the construct of clinical significance is best operationalized as "recovered," "improved but not recovered," and "still dysfunctional." In order to improve clarity of our interpretation, we limited the outcome to those who "recovered" and those who were "still dysfunctional" per the Jacobson classification. Inclusion of the third category (improved but not recovered) may have offered a fuller picture as to how each of these three potential outcomes occurred across the NH transition.

Several site effects were also apparent [[31], p. 394]. A limitation of MADDE was the lack of regional data to explain why site variations occurred in outcomes such as burden or depressive symptoms. Issues ranging from culture, to varying methods of MADDE implementation, to staffing ratios may have accounted for site-level variation in key variables. Historical events (Hurricane Andrew occurred in Florida in 1992) may have also influenced dementia caregivers' reports of distress during MADDE. Overall, the variations across site suggest that future multi-regional caregiving studies (descriptive or intervention-focused) must incorporate site data to explain the manifestation of key outcomes.

As the nature of family involvement may shift with residential care placement, it is possible that measures of caregiver stress require modification to better capture dimensions pertinent to the NH environment following institutionalization. As we have emphasized in prior research [24, 31] future measures should approach NHA as a transitional event with a focus on pre-admission and post-placement factors. Key pre-admission variables could include how the decision to institutionalize came about, how helpful the NH was in facilitating the move, difficulty in finding an appropriate facility, and overall satisfaction with the institutionalization experience. During post-placement, greater attention to family caregivers' experiences with NHs such as family-staff interactions, types of family involvement, perceptions of collaboration with NH staff, and ratings of the philosophy of care (for example, family-centered emphasis) may improve measurement of the NH transition's influence on dementia caregivers.

Conclusion

The findings of these analyses have several implications for future research and practice. Perhaps the most striking result is the apparent effect of NHA on clinical reports of burden and depressive symptoms following institutionalization. Our results emphasize that placement itself may provide relief and reductions in negative outcomes for dementia caregivers, particularly burden (in which we found a more considerable decrease than in depressive symptoms). Is it possible to reconcile our results with the ongoing focus of federal, state, and local support services to prevent NHA and save taxpayer-financed healthcare costs (for example, Medicaid in the U.S.), since this study shows that for many dementia caregivers placement may actually exert significant, clinical benefits? Perhaps the emphasis on preventing institutionalization is less appropriate than identifying the right time to make the placement decision or determining what types of support are optimal to reduce burden and depression during the period the person is cared for at home as well as during the NH transition [54]. More widespread implementation of effective psychosocial interventions to reduce caregiver burden and depression prior to the transition to NH placement can ameliorate the symptoms of burden and depression and increase the likelihood that a placement event is not premature, but instead occurs at an appropriate time. Nursing home admission should be viewed as a key transition faced in the course of dementia as opposed to a clinical endpoint.

While NHA may help to reduce overall burden and depressive symptoms in most caregivers, some may experience continued emotional and psychological distress well after institutionalization. The results of this study help to construct a profile of caregivers most at-risk for clinically high, persistent negative outcomes in the months after NHA. Wives, daughters, caregivers who have challenges meeting the needs of care recipients, and caregivers who have difficulty with their own health needs appear particularly susceptible to clinically persistent burden in the months immediately following NHA. Husbands and caregivers who experience health impairments and emotional stressors of their own prior to institutionalization appear most likely to suffer from clinically significant depression throughout the NH transition. Our findings can serve as an initial step in developing a screening process to identify families at-risk for burden or depression immediately prior and subsequent to institutionalization. Such families might benefit from psychosocial interventions (such as those provided by NH social workers or family nurse practitioners) during NHA to ease the transition and alleviate adverse outcomes following institutionalization. For example, using a transition "coach" during the pre-admission phase, the entry process, and in the months following admission could provide education regarding the NH environment and care policies, management of emotions and stress that may occur during the entry process (for example, guilt or grief), validation of families' decisions, and advocacy in facilitating interactions between NH care staff and administration. Such an approach may help families navigate the NH transition, and the development and testing of this or similar interventions could serve as a focus for future evaluation.

Abbreviations

ADLs:

activities of daily living

df :

degrees of freedom

GDS:

Geriatric Depression Scale

IADLs:

instrumental activities of daily living

MADDE:

Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration Evaluation

MMSE:

Mini-Mental Status Examination

NH:

nursing home

NHA:

nursing home admission

ROC:

receiver operating characteristic

U.S.:

United States

ZBI:

Zarit Burden Inventory

References

  1. Wolff JL, Kasper JD: Caregivers of frail elders: updating a national profile. Gerontologist. 2006, 46: 344-356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Pinquart M, Sorensen S: Associations of stressors and uplifts of caregiving with caregiver burden and depressive mood: a meta-analysis. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003, 58: P112-128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Vitaliano PP, Zhang J, Scanlan JM: Is caregiving hazardous to one's physical health? A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2003, 129: 946-972. 10.1037/0033-2909.129.6.946.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Logsdon RG: Dementia: psychosocial interventions for family caregivers. Lancet. 2008, 372: 182-183. 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61048-X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Mason A, Weatherly H, Spilsbury K, Golder S, Arksey H, Adamson J, Drummond M: The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of respite for caregivers of frail older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007, 55: 290-299. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2006.01037.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Mittelman MS, Haley WE, Clay OJ, Roth DL: Improving caregiver well-being delays nursing home placement of patients with Alzheimer's disease. Neurology. 2006, 67: 1592-1599. 10.1212/01.wnl.0000242727.81172.91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Winblad B, Wimo A, Almkvist O: Outcome measures in Alzheimer's disease: Do they go far enough?. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2000, 11 (supp 1): 3-10. 10.1159/000051226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Schulz R, O'Brien A, Czaja S, Ory M, Norris R, Martire LM, Belle SH, Burgio L, Gitlin L, Coon D, Burns R, Gallagher-Thompson D, Stevens A: Dementia caregiver intervention research: i6n search of clinical significance. The Gerontologist. 2002, 42: 589-602.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Alzheimer's Association: 2009 Alzheimer's Disease Fact and Figures. 2009, Chicago, IL: The Alzheimer's Association

    Google Scholar 

  10. Bowers BJ: Family perceptions of care in a nursing home. Gerontologist. 1988, 28: 361-368.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Maas ML, Reed D, Park M, Specht JP, Schutte D, Kelley LS, Swanson EA, Tripp-Reimer T, Buckwalter KC: Outcomes of family involvement in care intervention for caregivers of individuals with dementia. Nurs Res. 2004, 53: 76-86. 10.1097/00006199-200403000-00003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Gaugler JE: Family involvement in residential long-term care: a synthesis and critical review. Aging Ment Health. 2005, 9: 105-118. 10.1080/13607860412331310245.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Gaugler JE, Yu F, Krichbaum K, Wyman JF: Predictors of nursing home admission for persons with dementia. Med Care. 2009, 47: 191-198. 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31818457ce.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Yamamoto MN, Aneshensel CS, Levy-Storms L: Patterns of family visiting with institutionalized elders: the case of dementia. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2002, 57: S234-S246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Bauer M, Nay R: Family and staff partnerships in long-term care. A review of the literature. J Gerontol Nurs. 2003, 29: 46-53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Boise L, White D: The family's role in person-centered care: practice considerations. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv. 2004, 42: 12-20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Port CL, Zimmerman S, Williams CS, Dobbs D, Preisser JS, Williams SW: Families filling the gap: comparing family involvement for assisted living and nursing home residents with dementia. Gerontologist. 2005, 45: 87-95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Port CL: Informal caregiver involvement and illness detection among cognitively impaired nursing home residents. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2006, 61: M970-974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Gaugler JE, Pot AM, Zarit SH: Long-term adaptation to institutionalization in dementia caregivers. Gerontologist. 2007, 47: 730-740.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Matsuda O, Hasebe N, Ikehara K, Futatsuya M, Akahane N: Longitudinal study of the mental health of caregivers caring for elderly patients with dementia: effect of institutional placement on mental health. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1997, 51: 289-293. 10.1111/j.1440-1819.1997.tb03200.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Schulz R, Belle SH, Czaja SJ, McGinnis KA, Stevens A, Zhang S: Long-term care placement of dementia patients and caregiver health and well-being. JAMA. 2004, 292: 961-967. 10.1001/jama.292.8.961.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Whitlatch CJ, Schur D, Noelker LS, Ejaz FK, Looman WJ: The stress process of family caregiving in institutional settings. Gerontologist. 2001, 41: 462-473.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Zarit SH, Whitlatch CJ: Institutional placement: Phases of transition. Gerontologist. 1992, 32: 665-672.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Gaugler JE, Roth DL, Haley WE, Mittelman MS: Can counseling and support reduce burden and depressive symptoms in caregivers of people with Alzheimer's disease during the transition to institutionalization? Results from the New York University caregiver intervention study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008, 56: 421-428. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01593.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Gold DP, Reis MF, Markiewicz D, Andres D: When home care giving ends: A longitudinal study of outcomes for caregivers of relatives with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1995, 43: 10-16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Grasel E: When home care ends--changes in the physical health of informal caregivers caring for dementia patients: a longitudinal study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2002, 50: 843-849. 10.1046/j.1532-5415.2002.50209.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Mausbach BT, Aschbacher K, Patterson TL, von Kanel R, Dimsdale JE, Mills PJ, Ancoli-Israel S, Grant I: Effects of placement and bereavement on psychological well-being and cardiovascular risk in Alzheimer's caregivers: a longitudinal analysis. J Psychosom Res. 2007, 62: 439-445. 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.10.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Almberg B, Grafstrom M, Krichbaum K, Winblad B: The interplay of institution and family caregiving: Relations between patient hassles, nursing home hassles and caregivers' burnout. Int J Geriat Psychiatry. 2000, 15: 931-939. 10.1002/1099-1166(200010)15:10<931::AID-GPS219>3.0.CO;2-L.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Majerovitz SD: Predictors of burden and depression among nursing home family caregivers. Aging Ment Health. 2007, 11: 323-329. 10.1080/13607860600963380.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Gaugler JE, Leitsch SA, Zarit SH, Pearlin LI: Caregiver involvement following institutionalization: effects of preplacement stress. Res Aging. 2000, 22: 337-359. 10.1177/0164027500224002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Gaugler JE, Mittelman MS, Hepburn K, Newcomer R: Predictors of change in caregiver burden and depressive symptoms following nursing home admission. Psychol Aging. 2009, 24: 385-396. 10.1037/a0016052.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Pillemer K, Suitor JJ, Henderson CR, Meador R, Schultz L, Robison J, Hegeman C: A cooperative communication intervention for nursing home staff and family members of residents. Gerontologist. 2003, 96-106. 43 Special Issue II

  33. Levesque L, Ducharme F, Lachance L: Is there a difference between family caregiving of institutionalized elders with or without dementia?. West J Nurs Res. 1999, 21: 472-491.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Tornatore JB, Grant LA: Family caregiver satisfaction with the nursing home after placement of a relative with dementia. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2004, 59: S80-88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Pearlin LI, Mullan JT, Semple SJ, Skaff MM: Caregiving and the stress process: An overview of concepts and their measures. Gerontologist. 1990, 30: 583-594.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Newcomer R, Yordi C, DuNah R, Fox P, Wilkinson A: Effects of the Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration on caregiver burden and depression. Health Serv Res. 1999, 34: 669-689.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Miller R, Newcomer R, Fox P: Effects of the Medicare Alzheimer's Disease Demonstration Evaluation on nursing home entry. Health Serv Res. 1999, 34: 691-714.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Sheikh J, Yesavage J: Geriatric Depression Scale: Recent evidence and development of a shorter version. Clin Gerontologist. 1986, 5: 165-173. 10.1300/J018v05n01_09.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Zarit SH, Reever KE, Bach-Peterson J: Relatives of the impaired elderly: Correlates of feelings of burden. Gerontologist. 1980, 20: 649-655.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. McDowell I, Newell C: Social health. Measuring health: A Guide to Rating Scales and Questionnaires. 1996, New York: Oxford University Press, 2

    Google Scholar 

  41. Lyness JM, Noel TK, Cox C, King DA, Conwell Y, Caine ED: Screening for depression in elderly primary care patients. A comparison of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale and the Geriatric Depression Scale. Arch Intern Med. 1997, 157: 449-454. 10.1001/archinte.157.4.449.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Simon S: Stats: ROC curve (online). --- Either ISSN or Journal title must be supplied.. Accessed April 9, 2009, [http://www.childrensmercy.org/stats/ask/roc.asp]

  43. Folstein MF, Folstein SE, McHugh PR: Mini-Mental State: A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res. 1975, 12: 189-198. 10.1016/0022-3956(75)90026-6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Zarit SH, Orr N, Zarit J: Understanding the stress of caregivers: planning an intervention. Hidden Victims of Alzheimer's Disease: Families under Stress. Edited by: Zarit SH, Orr N, Zarit J. 1985, New York: NYU Press, 69-86.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Katz S, Ford AB, Moskowitz RW, Jackson BA, Jaffe MW: Studies of illness in the aged. The Index of ADL: A standardized measure of biological and psychosocial function. JAMA. 1963, 185: 914-919.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Lawton MP, Brody EM: Assessment of older people: self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist. 1969, 9: 179-186.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Gaugler JE, Kane RL, Kane RA, Newcomer R: Unmet care needs and key outcomes in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005, 53: 2098-2105. 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.00495.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Greene V: Substitution between formally and informally provided care for the impaired elderly in the community. Medical Care. 1983, 21: 609-619. 10.1097/00005650-198306000-00003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Lyons KS, Zarit SH: Formal and informal support: the great divide. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 1999, 14: 183-196. 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1166(199903)14:3<183::AID-GPS969>3.0.CO;2-J.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Brodaty H, Green A, Koschera A: Meta-analysis of psychosocial interventions for caregivers of people with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003, 51: 657-664. 10.1034/j.1600-0579.2003.00210.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Higginson IJ, Gao W, Jackson D, Murray J, Harding R: Short-form Zarit Caregiver Burden Interviews were valid in advanced conditions. J Clin Epidemiol. 2010, 63: 535-542. 10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Yaffe K, Fox P, Newcomer R, Sands L, Lindquist K, Dane K, Covinsky KE: Patient and caregiver characteristics and nursing home placement in patients with dementia. JAMA. 2002, 287: 2090-2097. 10.1001/jama.287.16.2090.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Jacobson NS, Roberts LJ, Berns SB, McGlinchey JB: Methods for defining and determining the clinical significance of treatment effects: description, application, and alternatives. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999, 67: 300-307. 10.1037/0022-006X.67.3.300.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. McClendon MJ, Smyth KA, Neundorfer MM: Long-term-care placement and survival of persons with Alzheimer's disease. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2006, 61: P220-227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pre-publication history

Download references

Acknowledgements

Funding sources and related paper presentations: This research was supported by grant R21 AG025625 from the National Institute on Aging/National Institutes of Health. A version of this paper was presented at the 2008 Gerontological Society of America Meeting, National Harbor, Maryland, U.S.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joseph E Gaugler.

Additional information

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors' contributions

JEG conceptualized the current study, conducted the analyses, and wrote all sections of the manuscript. MSM assisted JEG in conceptualizing the current study, assisted JEG in interpreting the analysis, and reviewed and revised all sections of the manuscript. KH reviewed all sections of the manuscript and provided feedback on the analytic plan. RN provided feedback on the analytic plan, assisted JEG in interpreting the results, and reviewed and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gaugler, J.E., Mittelman, M.S., Hepburn, K. et al. Clinically significant changes in burden and depression among dementia caregivers following nursing home admission. BMC Med 8, 85 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-85

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-85

Keywords