Table 1 Biomarkers under investigation for Alzheimer's disease
From: Diagnosis and biomarkers of predementia in Alzheimer's disease
| Correlates: | Method/source: | Alzheimer's disease-related biomarkers: |
|---|---|---|
| Molecularcore neuropathology | Cerebrospinal fluid | - Concentrations of amyloid-β42; |
| - Total Tau and phosphorylated Tau; | ||
| In vivo molecular imaging | - Intracerebral beta-amyloid load (e.g., PiB-PET, 18F-BAY94-9172); | |
| - Intracerebral aggregates of amyloid and tangle Tau(e.g., 18F-FDDNP); | ||
| Downstreamsecondary changes | Structural neuroimaging(MRI) | - Regional (medial temporal) atrophy (MRI) |
| - Volumetry of hippocampus/entorhinal cortex (MRI) | ||
| - Rate of brain/regional atrophy (MRI) | ||
| - Voxel-based morphometry (VBM)a | ||
| - Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)a | ||
| Functional neuroimaging(PET, SPECT, fMRI) | - Metabolic changes (FDG-PET) | |
| - Regional perfusion (SPECT) | ||
| - Functional MRIa and MRI perfusion-Functional connectivitya | ||
| Neurochemistry | - Proton spectroscopy (+H-MRS)a | |
| Associatedhomeostatic changes | Peripheral fluids(serum, plasma, platelets) | - Inflammatory markers (interleukins, cytokines)a |
| - Oxidative stress (isoprostanes)a | ||
| - Aβ40/Aβ42 ratio*; | ||
| APP ratioa | ||
| - Glycogen synthase kinase-3β activitya | ||
| - Other markers of synaptic damage/neurodegenerationa |