Table 1 Quantitative synthesis, bias assessment and credibility assessment of 74 associations between different comparisons of birth weight and health outcomes or traits

Araujo de Franca, 2014 [59]

Waist circumference

Per 1 kg increase

4898^d

6

Regression coefficient

−0.10 (−0.73 to 0.53)

0.760

73.2

−2.04 to 1.84

0.943

Araujo de Franca, 2014 [59]

Waist-to-hip ratio

Per 1 kg increase

5008^d

10

Regression coefficient

−0.59 (−0.84 to −0.34)

4.0 × 10⁻⁶

0

−0.89 to −0.30

0.052

Baird, 2011 [48]

BMC in hip

Per 1 kg increase

1795^d

6

Regression coefficient

1.42 (0.90 to 1.94)

8.3 × 10⁻⁸

5.9

0.56 to 2.28

0.838

Baird, 2011 [48]

BMC in lumbar spine

Per 1 kg increase

3181^d

7

Regression coefficient

1.72 (0.76 to 2.67)

4.2 × 10⁻⁴

33.5

−0.53 to 3.97

1.6 × 10⁻⁴

Baird, 2011 [48]

BMD in hip

Per 1 kg increase

3188^d

7

Regression coefficient

0.01 (0.00 to 0.02)

0.235

0

−0.01 to 0.01

0.271

Baird, 2011 [48]

BMD in lumbar spine

Per 1 kg increase

3506^d

8

Regression coefficient

0.00 (−0.01 to 0.01)

0.779

14.9

−0.02 to 0.02

0.341

Berhan, 2014 [46]

Perinatal mortality in developing countries

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

21,184/285,970

14

OR

9.59 (6.11 to 15.04)

7.5 × 10⁻²³

98.9

1.43 to 64.18

0.707

Caughey, 2009 [13]

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

4805/765,827

10

RR

0.97 (0.81 to 1.16)

0.736

0

0.78 to 1.20

NP

Caughey, 2009 [13]

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

11,082/2,228,906

23

RR

1.29 (1.17 to 1.42)

1.9 × 10⁻⁷

36.3

0.97 to 1.72

9.4 × 10⁻⁷

Caughey, 2009 [13]

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Per 1 kg increase

7404/858,650

16

RR

1.19 (1.10 to 1.28)

1.7 × 10⁻⁵

54.7

0.93 to 1.52

2.2 × 10⁻⁴

Caughey, 2009 [13]

All types of leukaemia

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

5766/766,202

11

RR

1.04 (0.86 to 1.26)

0.683

10

0.76 to 1.43

NP

Caughey, 2009 [13]

All types of leukaemia

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

NA/NA

14

RR

1.42 (1.26 to 1.60)

1.2 × 10⁻⁸

28.5

1.07 to 1.88

NA

Caughey, 2009 [13]

All types of leukaemia

Per 1 kg increase

11,313/861,710

21

RR

1.19 (1.12 to 1.27)

5.1 × 10⁻⁸

45.3

0.97 to 1.45

0.001

Caughey, 2009 [13]

Acute myeloid leukaemia

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

756/851,204

9

RR

1.46 (0.87 to 2.43)

0.151

43.7

0.39 to 5.43

NP

Caughey, 2009 [13]

Acute myeloid leukaemia

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

756/851,204

9

RR

1.25 (1.09 to 1.43)

1.3 × 10⁻³

43.9

0.88 to 1.77

3.1 × 10⁻⁴

Chen, 2012 [60]

Bone tumour

>4000 g vs. NBW

4044/272,354

8

OR

1.21 (0.97 to 1.50)

0.091

37.8

0.71 to 2.03

0.396

Christian, 2013 [40]

Childhood stunting

SGA vs. AGA (BW ≥ 2500 g)

5413/16,663

10

OR

1.92 (1.75 to 2.12)

1.1 × 10⁻⁴¹

0

1.72 to 2.15

NP

Christian, 2013 [40]

Childhood stunting

SGA vs. AGA (BW < 2500 g)

843/1171

10

OR

3.00 (2.36 to 3.81)

2.3 × 10⁻¹⁹

56.6

1.53 to 5.85

NP

Cook, 2010 [58]

Testicular cancer

<2500 g vs. NBW

6906/612,741

17

OR

1.34 (1.08 to 1.67)

7.9 × 10⁻³

50.9

0.69 to 2.62

0.049

Davey-Smith, 2007 [61]

Maternal cardiovascular mortality

Per 1 SD increase

2976/974,667

6

HR

0.75 (0.67 to 0.84)

3.1 × 10⁻⁷

79.8

0.53 to 1.06

0.119

Davey-Smith, 2007 [61]

Paternal cardiovascular mortality

Per 1 SD increase

9375/774,325

3

HR

0.93 (0.91 to 0.95)

2.0 × 10⁻⁹

0

0.80 to 1.09

0.516

der Voort, 2014 [8]

Pre-school wheezing

<2500 g vs. NBW

40,603/103,271

26

OR

1.10 (1.00 to 1.21)

0.051

16

0.89 to 1.36

NP

der Voort, 2014 [8]

School-age asthma

<2500 g vs. NBW

11,729/121,198

16

OR

1.13 (1.01 to 1.27)

0.032

0

1.00 to 1.28

NP

Dodds, 2012 [62]

Muscle strength

Per 1 kg increase

20,461^d

14

Regression coefficient

0.86 (0.58 to 1.15)

1.9 × 10⁻⁹

56.4

−0.01 to 1.74

NP

Harder, 2007 [7]

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

5815/100,759

10

OR

1.32 (1.06 to 1.64)

0.013

60.8

0.71 to 2.43

NP

Harder, 2007 [7]

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

6005/108,400

9

OR

1.27 (1.01 to 1.59)

0.044

68.2

0.62 to 2.58

NP

Harder, 2008 [63]

Astrocytoma

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

1574/160,146

6

OR

0.85 (0.58 to 1.25)

0.410

31.1

0.35 to 2.09

NP

Harder, 2008 [63]

Astrocytoma

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

1812/1,649,625

8

OR

1.38 (1.07 to 1.79)

0.014

57.5

0.66 to 2.88

0.160

Harder, 2008 [63]

Medulloblastoma

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

747/158,163

5

OR

1.65 (0.42 to 6.50)

0.475

88.2

0.01 to 223

0.503

Harder, 2008 [63]

Medulloblastoma

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

853/1,647,552

7

OR

1.28 (1.02 to 1.59)

0.033

5.6

0.90 to 1.80

NP

Harder, 2009 [64]

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

5236/1,385,809

8

OR

0.82 (0.55 to 1.24)

0.344

91.4

0.20 to 3.31

NP

Harder, 2009 [64]

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

6406/2,388,046

10

OR

1.17 (1.09 to 1.26)

1.2 × 10⁻⁵

0

1.08 to 1.28

NP

Harder, 2010 [65]

Neuroblastoma

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

2907/2,156,535

10

OR

1.24 (0.99 to 1.55)

0.058

30.2

0.74 to 2.07

NP

Harder, 2010 [65]

Neuroblastoma

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

2856/2,156,654

10

OR

1.19 (1.04 to 1.36)

0.013

0

1.01 to 1.39

NP

Jackson 2013 [66]

Pneumonia in childhood

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

1281/1464

4

OR

3.18 (1.02 to 9.91)

0.046

95.6

0.01 to 714

NP

Kormos, 2013 [67]

Intelligence in adolescence

<2500 g vs. NBW

NA/NA

15

OR^c

0.35 (0.27 to 0.45)

1.7 × 10⁻¹⁶

75.4

0.14 to 0.84

7.8 × 10⁻⁴

Lawlor 2005 [68]

FEV₁

Per 1 kg increase

5438^d

7

Regression coefficient

0.06 (0.03 to 0.08)

1.4 × 10⁻⁵

36.5

−0.01 to 0.12

NP

Lawlor 2006 [69]

Total cholesterol in men

Per 1 kg increase

33,650^d

34

Regression coefficient

−0.04 (−0.07 to −0.01)

0.018

49.8

−0.15 to 0.07

NP

Lawlor 2006 [69]

Total cholesterol in women

Per 1 kg increase

23,129^d

34

Regression coefficient

−0.01 (−0.04 to 0.02)

0.510

27.7

−0.09 to 0.07

NP

Loret de Mola, 2014 [55]

Depression in adulthood

SGA vs. AGA

397/2844

5

OR

1.14 (0.64 to 2.03)

0.656

49.3

0.20 to 6.36

NP

Mebrahtu, 2015 [11]

Wheezing disorders in childhood

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

145,421/665,431

20

OR

1.61 (1.39 to 1.85)

1.1 × 10⁻¹⁰

82.3

0.92 to 2.80

NP

Mebrahtu, 2015 [11]

Wheezing disorders in childhood

>4000 g vs. NBW

44,988/736,940

10

OR

1.02 (1.00 to 1.05)

0.100

0

0.99 to 1.05

NP

Michos, 2007 [70]

Testicular cancer

>4000 g vs. NBW

5684/123,120

10

OR

1.14 (0.99 to 1.31)

0.075

42.8

0.80 to 1.62

0.006

Milne, 2013 [56]

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

SGA vs. AGA

6835/11,689

12

OR

1.24 (1.13 to 1.36)

4.9 × 10⁻⁶

0

1.12 to 1.37

NP

Mu, 2012 [71]

Diastolic blood pressure

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

29,192^d

15

OR^c

4.45 (1.32 to 14.99)

0.016

99.3

0.02 to 902

0.001

Mu, 2012 [71]

Systolic blood pressure

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

32,351^d

19

OR^c

7.45 (2.19 to 25.33)

1.3 × 10⁻³

99.4

0.02 to 2296

0.615

Mu, 2014 [41]^b

Asthma in adulthood

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

2111/37,409

4

OR

1.25 (1.12 to 1.40)

7.7 × 10⁻⁵

0

0.98 to 1.60

NP

Øglund, 2015 [72]

Physical activity

Per 1 kg increase

10,667^d

8

Regression coefficient

−3.08 (−10.20 to 4.04)

0.397

9

−14.81 to 8.66

NP

Papadopoulou, 2012 [73]

Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood

<2500 g vs. NBW

669/64,058

3

OR

0.94 (0.54 to 1.65)

0.829

0

0.03 to 35.25

NP

Papadopoulou, 2012 [73]

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood

<2500 g vs. NBW

1571/68,265

5

OR

1.07 (0.71 to 1.63)

0.740

55.4

0.29 to 3.95

NP

Papadopoulou, 2012 [73]

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma in childhood

>4000 g vs. NBW

1615/297,469

6

OR

1.17 (0.76 to 1.81)

0.473

66.7

0.32 to 4.28

0.207

Panduru, 2013 [74]

Atopic dermatitis

<2500 g vs. NBW

6315/100,663

10

OR

0.66 (0.48 to 0.90)

9.1 × 10⁻³

85.6

0.23 to 1.87

0.412

Panduru, 2013 [74]

Atopic dermatitis

>4000 g vs. NBW

6224/62,672

6

OR

1.13 (0.97 to 1.31)

0.108

62.9

0.74 to 1.73

NP

Risnes, 2011 [42]^b

All-cause mortality

<3000 g vs. NBW

32,926/276,648

8

HR

1.12 (1.07 to 1.16)

6.9 × 10⁻⁸

21.7

1.03 to 1.21

NP

Risnes, 2011 [42]^b

All-cause mortality

>4000 g vs. NBW

32,926/276,648

8

HR

1.02 (0.98 to 1.05)

0.302

0

0.98 to 1.06

NP

Risnes, 2011 [42]^b

All-cause mortality

Per 1 kg increase

36,834/361,874

18

HR

0.94 (0.92 to 0.97)

2.6 × 10⁻⁶

18.6

0.89 to 0.99

0.038

Risnes, 2011 [42]^b

Mortality from cardiovascular diseases

Per 1 kg increase

11,366/314,715

16

HR

0.88 (0.85 to 0.91)

1.6 × 10⁻¹³

0

0.84 to 0.91

0.177

Risnes, 2011 [42]^b

Mortality from cancer

Per 1 kg increase

9233/269,944

10

HR

1.09 (1.04 to 1.14)

3.4 × 10⁻⁴

20.8

0.99 to 1.19

0.037

Schellong, 2012 [43]^b

Overweight/obese in adulthood

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

73,420/330,648

30

OR

0.67 (0.59 to 0.76)

1.1 × 10⁻⁹

82

0.38 to 1.18

NP

Schellong, 2012 [43]^b

Overweight/obese in adulthood

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

96,296/396,381

45

OR

1.68 (1.58 to 1.79)

3.6 × 10⁻⁵⁷

74.9

1.24 to 2.28

NP

Silveira 2008 [75]

Metabolic syndrome

<2500 g vs. NBW

NA/NA

11

OR

2.54 (1.57 to 4.09)

1.4 × 10⁻⁴

39.2

0.75 to 8.60

NA

Shi, 2015 [76]

RSV-related acute lower respiratory infection in childhood

<2500 g vs. NBW

3383/155,872

5

OR

1.91 (1.45 to 2.53)

5.9 × 10⁻⁶

59.1

0.81 to 4.54

NP

van Montfoort, 2005 [77]

Cortisol levels

Per 1 kg increase

2301^d

11

Regression coefficient

−20.49 (−35.97 to −5.00)

9.5 × 10⁻³

46.3

−61.37 to 20.4

NP

Wang, 2014 [9]

Coronary heart disease

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

13,089/360,209

16

OR

1.22 (1.13 to 1.31)

4.7 × 10⁻⁷

7

1.08 to 1.37

0.751

Wang, 2014 [9]

Coronary heart disease

>4000 g vs. ≤ 4000 g

18,243/313,235

14

OR

0.89 (0.81 to 0.98)

0.019

47.4

0.68 to 1.16

NP

Wang, 2014 [9]

Coronary heart disease

Per 1 kg increase

NA/NA

23

OR

0.82 (0.78 to 0.86)

2.4 × 10⁻¹⁵

41.1

0.70 to 0.96

NA

Whincup, 2008 [78]

Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Per 1 kg increase

6090/145,994

31

OR

0.80 (0.72 to 0.88)

1.8 × 10⁻⁵

66.5

0.52 to 1.21

0.355

White, 2009 [79]

Chronic kidney disease

<2500 g vs. NBW

NA/NA

21

OR

1.73 (1.44 to 2.08)

8.3 × 10⁻⁹

66.3

0.88 to 3.38

NA

Wojcik, 2013 [14]^b

Depression in adulthood

<2500 g vs. ≥ 2500 g

9013/50,428

18

OR

1.15 (1.00 to 1.32)

0.057

34.3

0.79 to 1.67

NP

Xu, 2009 [80]

Breast cancer

Per 1 kg increase

16,299/3,604,802

16

OR

1.08 (1.03 to 1.13)

2.8 × 10⁻³

22.5

0.97 to 1.20

4.1 × 10⁻⁴

Yang, 2014 [12]

Colorectal cancer

Per 1 kg increase

5985/723,087

5

RR

1.05 (0.93 to 1.19)

0.461

57.1

0.72 to 1.52

0.149

Yang, 2014 [12]

Endometrial cancer

Per 1 kg increase

3780/671,410

5

RR

0.91 (0.81 to 1.03)

0.128

40.2

0.65 to 1.27

0.758

Yang, 2014 [12]

Lung cancer

Per 1 kg increase

5207/696,742

4

RR

1.09 (1.02 to 1.16)

0.016

12.3

0.90 to 1.31

0.436

Yang, 2014 [12]

Melanoma

Per 1 kg increase

4000/3,821,122

6

RR

1.14 (1.05 to 1.24)

1.9 × 10⁻³

0

1.01 to 1.29

NP

Yang, 2014 [12]

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

Per 1 kg increase

2056/626,082

3

RR

1.12 (1.01 to 1.24)

0.033

0

0.58 to 2.15

NP

Yang, 2014 [12]

Ovarian cancer

Per 1 kg increase

2880/805,887

5

RR

0.96 (0.88 to 1.04)

0.295

0

0.83 to 1.10

NP

Zhang, 2013 [81]

Diastolic blood pressure

>4000 g vs. NBW

150,980^d

23

MD

0.19 (−0.23 to 0.62)

0.367

72.5

−1.39 to 1.79

NP

Zhang, 2013 [81]

Systolic blood pressure

>4000 g vs. NBW

151,935^d

24

MD

−0.25 (−0.92 to 0.42)

0.466

79.3

−2.97 to 2.47

NP