Risk factor | Adjusted odds ratio for stillbirth (95% confidence interval) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1* | Model 2* | Model 3* | Model 4* | Model 5* | |
Antepartum stillbirth | |||||
 Rural place of residence | 3.16 (1.15–8.68) | 3.08 (1.12–8.44) | 2.81 (1.01–7.77) | 3.02 (1.09–8.36) | 2.98 (0.92–9.60) |
 Boy baby | 1.18 (0.83–1.67) | 1.31 (0.90–1.88) | 1.31 (0.90–1.92) | 1.19 (0.82–1.74) | 1.09 (0.73–1.61) |
 Wealth index quartile | |||||
  I | 0.81 (0.49–1.33)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  II | 0.83 (0.51–1.37)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  III | 0.87 (0.53–1.43)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  IV | 1.00 |  |  |  |  |
 Maternal age | |||||
  15–19 years |  | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
  20–24 years |  | 1.99 (0.79–4.99) | 1.92 (0.75–4.91) | 2.51 (0.89–7.12) | 2.60 (0.90–7.50) |
  25–29 years |  | 2.90 (1.08–7.79) | 2.57 (0.94–7.01) | 3.28 (1.09–9.91) | 3.37 (1.09–10.41) |
  ≥ 30 years |  | 4.36 (1.50–12.65) | 3.86 (1.31–11.34) | 5.09 (1.58–16.34) | 4.63 (1.39–15.44) |
 Solid cooking fuel use |  | 0.86 (0.59–1.25)‡ |  |  |  |
 Any tobacco use ever |  | 2.64 (1.21–5.79) | 2.15 (0.94–4.89) | 1.80 (0.75–4.33) | 1.68 (0.69–4.08) |
 First born |  | 5.01 (3.18–7.89) | 4.62 (2.86–7.47) | 4.29 (2.67–6.88) | 4.16 (2.52–6.86) |
 Previous history of stillbirth |  | 0.91 (0.37–2.26)‡ |  |  |  |
 Previous history of miscarriage |  | 1.12 (0.67–1.86)‡ |  |  |  |
 Maternal history of diabetes mellitus irrespective of pregnancy |  | 1.50 (0.18–12.79)‡ |  |  |  |
 Maternal history of hypertension irrespective of pregnancy |  | 1.33 (0.38–4.60)‡ |  |  |  |
 No maternal antenatal care visit during pregnancy |  |  | 1.87 (1.19–2.91) | 2.34 (1.51–3.63) | 1.99 (1.25–3.16) |
 Mother did not receive 2 tetanus toxoid injections during pregnancy |  |  | 1.93 (1.25–2.99) | 1.74 (1.12–2.70) | 1.47 (0.92–2.35) |
 Mother did not consume iron folic acid tablets during pregnancy |  |  | 1.16 (0.77–1.76)‡ |  |  |
 Pregnancy with multiple foetuses |  |  | 1.36 (0.51–3.67)‡ |  |  |
 Maternal high blood pressure in the last trimester of pregnancy |  |  | 1.09 (0.38–3.17)‡ |  |  |
 Mother had malaria in the last trimester of pregnancy |  |  | 1.16 (0.34–3.94)‡ |  |  |
 Mother diagnosed with syphilis during this pregnancy | |||||
  No |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
  Yes |  |  | 3.58 (0.47–27.16)‡ |  |  |
  Do not know |  |  | 1.57 (0.81–3.04)‡ |  |  |
 Mother had fever in the last 3 months of pregnancy |  |  | 0.92 (0.54–1.56)‡ |  |  |
 Mother had convulsions in the last 3 months of pregnancy |  |  | 1.33 (0.77–2.29)‡ |  |  |
 Mother was informed that the baby was not growing adequately inside the womb |  |  | 1.70 (0.83–3.49) | 1.38 (0.69–2.77)‡ |  |
 Gestation period | |||||
  7 months |  |  | 18.58 (10.30–33.52) | 20.74 (11.42–37.67) | 18.27 (9.61–34.74) |
  > 7–8 months |  |  | 17.00 (10.42–27.71) | 17.25 (10.61–28.04) | 15.56 (9.27–26.12) |
  > 8 months |  |  | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
 Deferred delivery |  |  |  | 4.72 (1.88–11.82) | 5.61 (2.23–14.13) |
 Spontaneous labour |  |  |  | 2.17 (1.47–3.20) | 2.14 (1.40–3.28) |
 Foul smelling discharge |  |  |  | 2.45 (1.40–4.26) | 2.04 (1.10–3.78) |
 Place of delivery | |||||
  Public facility |  |  |  |  | 1.00 |
  Private facility |  |  |  |  | 2.00 (1.15–3.46) |
  Home |  |  |  |  | 2.44 (1.51–3.95) |
 Vaginal delivery |  |  |  |  | 2.78 (1.20–6.45) |
 Push/forceful pull done during delivery by the health provider |  |  |  |  | 4.06 (2.39–6.89) |
 Entangled cord around the baby’s neck | |||||
  No |  |  |  |  | 1.00 |
  Yes |  |  |  |  | 1.35 (0.62–2.94) |
  Do not know |  |  |  |  | 0.37 (0.13–1.07) |
 Breech presentation of the baby |  |  |  |  | 1.82 (0.94–3.52) |
Intrapartum stillbirth | |||||
 Rural place of residence | 1.33 (0.57–3.12) | 1.25 (0.54–2.92) | 1.13 (0.48–2.65) | 1.15 (0.49–2.69) | 0.97 (0.41–2.31) |
 Boy baby | 1.16 (0.78–1.74) | 1.20 (0.79–1.81) | 1.39 (0.90–2.15) | 1.33 (0.86–2.05) | 1.20 (0.77–1.85) |
 Wealth index quartile | |||||
  I | 1.20 (0.66–2.15)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  II | 1.38 (0.78–2.45)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  III | 0.87 (0.47–1.64)‡ |  |  |  |  |
  IV | 1.00 |  |  |  |  |
 Maternal age | |||||
  15–19 years |  | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
  20–24 years |  | 1.13 (0.47–2.69) | 1.26 (0.49–3.24) | 1.29 (0.50–3.32) | 1.27 (0.49–3.29) |
  25–29 years |  | 2.35 (0.92–5.99) | 2.83 (1.03–7.76) | 3.16 (1.15–8.67) | 3.33 (1.20–9.25) |
  ≥ 30 years |  | 2.47 (0.84–7.23) | 3.18 (1.02–9.93) | 3.50 (1.12–10.96) | 2.73 (0.83–8.93) |
 Solid cooking fuel use |  | 1.59 (0.99–2.55) | 1.73 (1.05–2.86) | 1.70 (1.03–2.79) | 1.70 (1.01–2.88) |
 Any tobacco use ever |  | 0.40 (0.06–2.92)‡ |  |  |  |
 First born |  | 5.85 (3.50–9.76) | 6.30 (3.62–10.94) | 6.87 (3.98–11.85) | 7.22 (4.09–12.76) |
 Previous history of stillbirth |  | 2.33 (1.15–4.72) | 2.41 (1.18–4.91) | 2.27 (1.11–4.65) | 1.92 (0.90–4.07) |
 Previous history of miscarriage |  | 1.37 (0.79–2.36)‡ |  |  |  |
 Maternal history of diabetes mellitus irrespective of pregnancy |  | 4.16 (0.78–22.09) | 5.73 (1.22–27.01) | 4.50 (0.99–20.36) | 3.03 (0.63–14.55) |
 Maternal history of high blood pressure irrespective of pregnancy |  | 1.32 (0.35–5.05)‡ |  |  |  |
 No maternal antenatal care visit during pregnancy |  |  | 0.91 (0.49–1.68)‡ |  |  |
 Mother did not receive 2 tetanus toxoid injections during pregnancy |  |  | 0.92 (0.49–1.70)‡ |  |  |
 Mother did not consume iron folic acid tablets during pregnancy |  |  | 1.14 (0.73–1.79)‡ |  |  |
 Pregnancy with multiple foetuses |  |  | 3.36 (1.16–9.72) | 3.36 (1.17–9.70) | 2.73 (0.91–8.21) |
Maternal hypertension in the last trimester of pregnancy |  |  | 0.74 (0.17–3.32)‡ |  |  |
 Mother had malaria in the last trimester of pregnancy |  |  | 0.65 (0.14–2.95)‡ |  |  |
 Mother diagnosed with syphilis during this pregnancy | |||||
  No |  |  | 1.00 |  |  |
  Yes |  |  | Empty |  |  |
  Do not know |  |  | 0.87 (0.34–2.21)‡ |  |  |
 Mother had fever in the last 3 months of pregnancy |  |  | 1.62 (0.99–2.66) | 1.43 (0.86–2.37) | 1.11 (0.66–1.89) |
 Mother had convulsions in the last 3 months of pregnancy |  |  | 0.37 (0.13–1.05) | 0.48 (0.19–1.20) | 0.38 (0.15–0.97) |
 Mother was informed that the baby was not growing adequately inside the womb |  |  | 1.29 (0.49–3.39)‡ |  |  |
 Gestation period | |||||
  7 months |  |  | 6.92 (2.84–16.88) | 7.55 (3.15–18.10) | 5.31 (2.02–13.91) |
  > 7–8 months |  |  | 4.16 (1.86–9.27) | 4.11 (1.85–9.15) | 4.14 (1.90–9.04) |
  > 8 months |  |  | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
 Deferred delivery |  |  |  | 4.04 (1.40–11.67) | 3.03 (0.97–9.46) |
 Spontaneous labour |  |  |  | 1.04 (0.65–1.67)‡ |  |
 Foul smelling discharge |  |  |  | 0.99 (0.41–2.41)‡ |  |
 Place of delivery | |||||
  Public facility |  |  |  |  | 1.00 |
  Private facility |  |  |  |  | 1.28 (0.68–2.43) |
  Home |  |  |  |  | 2.05 (1.23–3.40) |
 Vaginal delivery |  |  |  |  | 1.08 (0.52–2.23) |
 Push/forceful pull done during delivery by the health provider |  |  |  |  | 4.36 (2.49–7.63) |
 Entangled cord around baby’s neck | |||||
  No |  |  |  |  | 1.00 |
  Yes |  |  |  |  | 1.00 (0.41–2.47) |
  Do not know |  |  |  |  | 0.24 (0.06–1.02) |
 Breech presentation of the baby |  |  |  |  | 4.33 (2.38–7.89) |