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Table 5 Signals associated with increased cancer risk (exposure: ≥ 6 prescriptions)

From: A systematic assessment of the association between frequently prescribed medicines and the risk of common cancers: a series of nested case-control studies

Cancer

Adjusted for comorbidities†

Adjusted for comorbidities† and smoking

Breast§

Estrogen-HRT (OR = 1.36)

Metronidazole* (OR = 2.21)

Progestogen-HRT (OR = 1.50)

Estrogen-HRT (OR = 1.32)

Metronidazole* (OR = 2.36)

Progestogen-HRT (OR = 1.48)

Lung

Amitriptyline (OR = 1.27)

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.44)

Azathioprine (OR = 1.88)

Cimetidine (OR = 1.46)

Diazepam (OR = 1.29)

Dihydrocodeine (OR = 1.40)

Folic acid (OR = 1.50)§

Ipratropium* (OR = 1.63)

Nitrazepam (OR = 1.49)

Quinine (OR = 1.25)

Salbutamol* (OR = 1.41)

Salmeterol* (OR = 1.37)

Temazepam (OR = 1.33)

Tiotropium* (OR = 1.64)

Vitamin D* (OR = 1.45)

Amitriptyline (OR = 1.25)

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.36)

Azathioprine (OR = 2.30)

Cimetidine (OR = 1.37)

Dihydrocodeine (OR = 1.28)

Fluticasone* (OR = 1.41)

Ipratropium* (OR = 1.56)

Nitrazepam (OR = 1.58)

Phenoxymethylpenicillin (OR = 2.89)

Quinine (OR = 1.31)

Salbutamol* (OR = 1.36)

Salmeterol* (OR = 1.51)

Tiotropium* (OR = 1.52)

Colorectal

Allopurinol (OR = 1.35)

Aminophylline (OR = 1.93)

Bisacodyl (OR = 1.79)

Dipyridamole (OR = 1.45)

Mesalazine (OR = 1.65)

Perindopril (OR = 1.31)

Phenytoin (OR = 1.58)

Allopurinol (OR = 1.33)

Aminophylline (OR = 1.89)

Dipyridamole (OR = 1.44)

Tiotropium* (OR = 1.49)

 

Prostate§§

Cerivastatin (OR = 1.59)

Clioquinol* (OR = 2.06)

Alfuzosin (OR = 1.63)

Atorvastatin (OR = 1.25)

Clioquinol* (OR = 2.09)

Bladder

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.39)

Nicotine (OR = 2.59)

Trimethoprim (OR = 1.80)

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.53)

Cefalexin (OR = 1.99)

Celecoxib (OR = 1.78)

Ranitidine (OR = 1.28)

Trimethoprim (OR = 2.04)

Malignant melanoma

Clopidogrel (OR = 1.86)

 

–

 

Oesophagus

Alginic acid (OR = 1.52)

Beclometasone* (OR = 1.37)

Cisapride (OR = 2.89)

Lansoprazole (OR = 1.67)

Omeprazole (OR = 1.45)

Risedronate sodium (OR = 2.54)

Vitamin B (OR = 1.54)

Warfarin (OR = 1.43)

Alginic acid (OR = 1.53)

azathioprine (OR = 4.15)

Lansoprazole (OR = 1.59)

Omeprazole (OR = 1.40)

Prednisolone (OR = 1.68)

Risedronate sodium (OR = 2.69)

Non-Hodgkin’s

lymphoma

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.46)

Azathioprine (OR = 2.58)

Gabapentin (OR = 2.86)

Methotrexate (OR = 3.41)

Phenoxymethylpenicillin (OR = 3.77)

Amoxicillin (OR = 1.50)

Gabapentin (OR = 3.41)

Leukaemia

Allopurinol (OR = 1.68)

Oxybutynin (OR = 2.35)

Oxytetracycline (OR = 2.67)

Paracetamol (OR = 1.26)

Metoclopramide (OR = 2.61)

Oxybutynin (OR = 2.69)

Oxytetracycline (OR = 3.01)

Paracetamol (OR = 1.34)

Oral (inc. head, neck, nasal)

Betamethasone* (OR = 1.69)

Folic acid (OR = 3.79) §

Vitamin A (OR = 3.84)

Vitamin B (OR = 3.09)

Vitamin C (OR = 4.43)

Hydrochlorothiazide (OR = 2.56)

Hydrocortisone* (OR = 1.66)

Vitamin B (OR = 2.55)

Vitamin C (OR = 3.63)

Stomach

Cimetidine (OR = 1.52)

 

Chlorphenamine (OR = 4.72)

 

Ovary§

Cyclopenthiazide (OR = 3.31)

Phenytoin (OR = 3.87)

Vitamin D* (OR = 2.66)

Phenytoin (OR = 4.31)

 

Kidney

Hydrochlorothiazide (OR = 2.26)

Nystatin* (OR = 2.25)

Perindopril (OR = 1.87)

Hydrochlorothiazide (OR = 2.61)

Perindopril (OR = 1.94)

Pancreas

Clopidogrel (OR = 2.14)

Hydrochlorothiazide (OR = 1.84)

Metoclopramide (OR = 3.08)

Nicotine (OR = 3.61)

Clopidogrel (OR = 2.37)

Lorazepam (OR = 3.59)

Methotrexate (OR = 4.39)

Quinine (OR = 1.78)

Cervix & other gynae§

Cimetidine (OR = 1.87)

   

Uterus§

Atenolol (OR = 1.40)

Bendroflumethiazide (OR = 1.33)

Bismuth* (OR = 6.56)

Dextropropoxyphene (OR = 1.43)

Doxazosin (OR = 2.21)

Enalapril (OR = 1.78)

Losartan (OR = 2.00)

Peru balsam* (OR = 6.56)

Salicylic acid* (OR = 4.31)

Bendroflumethiazide (OR = 1.32)

Doxazosin (OR = 1.88)

Enalapril (OR = 2.35)

Loperamide (OR = 2.88)

Salicylic acid* (OR = 6.85)

Larynx

Cimetidine (OR = 2.12)

Vitamin B (OR = 2.20)

–

 

Brain and CNS

Carbamazepine (OR = 3.02)

 

–

 

Myeloma

Mometasone* (OR = 3.45)

 

Chlortalidone (OR = 3.06)

 

Liver

Furosemide (OR = 1.98)

Mometasone* (OR = 3.82)

Pravastatin (OR = 2.26)

Furosemide (OR = 2.48)

 

Thyroid

Levothyroxine (OR = 2.30)

Progestogen-HRT (OR = 2.52)§

Progestogen-HRT (OR = 2.55) §

 

Anal

Doxazosin (OR = 3.19)

Nicotine (OR = 9.95)

Bisoprolol (OR = 3.30)

Nicotine (OR = 8.07)

  1. Abbreviations: OR odds ratio, HRT hormone replacement therapy, CNS central nervous system
  2. †Comorbidities include diabetes, myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, dementia, cerebrovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, osteoporosis, rheumatological disease, renal disease, liver disease, irritable bowel disease, human immunodeficiency viruses and hemiplegia/paraplegia, plus potential site-specific confounders
  3. *Medicines applied for local effect, all other medicines systemic
  4. §Analyses restricted to females only
  5. §§Analyses restricted to males only