Intensive lactation among women with recent gestational diabetes significantly alters the early postpartum circulating lipid profile: the SWIFT study

Table 1 Clinical characteristics of women with GDM in the SWIFT cohort

	IBF (n = 216)	IFF/Mixed (n = 134)	P value
Prenatal characteristics
Age, years, mean (SD)	34.1 (4.7)	33.6 (5.1)	0.38
Pre-pregnancy BMI, kg/m², mean (SD)	32.2 (6.8)	34.1 (8.6)	0.02
Race, n (%)			0.35
Non-Hispanic white	35 (16.2%)	23 (17.1%)
Asian	68 (31.5%)	38 (28.4%)
Non-Hispanic black	18 (8.3%)	19 (14.2%)
Hispanic	93 (43.1%)	52 (38.8%)
Others	2 (0.9%)	2 (1.5%)
Z-score sum of 3-h 100-g OGTT during pregnancy, mean (SD)	0.5 (3.0)	0.6 (2.7)	0.81
Treatment for GDM, n (%)			0.88
Diet	124 (57.4%)	78 (58.2%)
Oral medications/insulin	92 (42.6%)	56 (41.8%)
Baseline characteristics at 6-9 weeks postpartum (study baseline)
2-h 75-g OGTT
FPG, mmol/l, mean (SD)	96.3 (9.4)	100.4 (9.9)	< 0.001
2 h-PG, mmol/l, Mean (SD)	118.6 (31.0)	122.7 (29.2)	0.22
Fasting insulin, pmol/l, median (IQR)	21.3 (15.2–31.4)	29.5 (19.6–41.1)	< 0.001
HOMA-IR, median (IQR)	5.0 (3.5–7.7)	7.5 (4.7–10.6)	< 0.001
HOMA-β, median (IQR)	238.9 (172.1–354.6)	282.0 (202.0–380.2)	0.006
Status of glucose tolerance, n (%)			0.004
NGT	118 (54.6%)	52 (38.8%)
IFG/IGT	98 (45.4%)	82 (61.2%)
2-month LIR score, Median (IQR)	1.98 (1.86–2.0)	0.53 (0.25–1.06)	< 0.001
No T2D 2-month LIR score	1.98 (1.88–2.0)	0.50 (0.25–1.0)	< 0.001
Future incident T2D 2-month LIR score	1.98 (1.81–2.0)	0.55 (0.23–1.06)	< 0.001
Follow-up characteristics
Future T2D status up to 8 years post-baseline, n (%)			0.098
Future T2D	98 (45.4%)	73 (54.5%)
No T2D	118 (54.6%)	61 (45.5%)
Person-time of follow-up, months, mean (SD)	53.4 (32.2)	53.0 (33.6)	0.92

Data are presented as mean (SD) for continuous variables that are approximately normally distributed. Data are presented as median (IQR) for continuous variables with asymmetrical distributions. Chi-square test was used for categorical variables (n, %), t-test was used for continuous variables (mean, SD), and Mann-Whitney U test was used for continuous variables (median, IQR). IBF, intensive breastfeeding; IFF/Mixed, intensive formula feeding or mixed feeding; BMI, body mass index; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus; FPG, fasting plasma glucose; 2 h-PG, 2-h postload plasma glucose; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance; HOMA-β, homeostatic model assessment for beta cell function; NGT, normal glucose tolerance; IFG, impaired fasting glucose; IGT, impaired glucose tolerance; LIR, lactation intensity/duration ratio; T2D, type 2 diabetes

ISSN: 1741-7015