Fig. 1

Estimates from difference-in-difference analysis for the relationship between IPVA victimisation at ages 18–21 and logged depressive symptom scores at ages 16 and 23. Dashed lines represent ages 18–21 (when the exposure IPVA was reported to occur). The parallel nature of the lines suggests that IPVA between ages 18 and 21 years does not have a causal effect on increasing depressive symptoms. Evidence of a positive causal effect would be provided by the lines for people who experienced IPVA (‘vic’) and those who did not experience IPVA (‘No vic’) fanning in or out over time