Skip to main content

Table 2 Evidence of associations between diet and renal cell carcinoma

From: The role of diet in renal cell carcinoma incidence: an umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies

Exposure

Reference

No of primary studies

No. of participants/no. of cases

Adjusted SHR (95%-CI)

P value

I2

95%-PI

Small study effects

Excess significance bias

Largest study significant

Level of evidence

Dietary patterns or dietary quality indices

Healthy dietary pattern

Alizadeh 2017

4

51,709/1327

0.66 (0.51 to 0.85)

0.001449

19.4%

0.27 to 1.63

No

No

No

IV

Unhealthy/Western pattern

Alizadeh 2017

4

51,709/1327

1.54 (1.19 to 2.01)

0.001232

24.70%

0.62 to 3.84

No

No

No

IV

Drinking pattern

Alizadeh 2017

2

47,705/554

0.69 (0.47 to 1.01)

0.057101

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Dietary Inflammatory Index

Jayedi 2018

2

36,118/1030

1.08 (1.03 to 1.13)

0.00276

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

IV

Glycemic index

Xu 2019

5

502,119/4281

1.18 (1.02 to 1.37)

0.026826

26.00%

0.79 to 1.75

No

No

No

IV

Glycemic load

Xu 2019

5

502,119/4281

1.16 (0.73 to 1.84)

0.522525

82.40%

0.21 to 6.45

No

No

No

NS

Foods

Fish

Bai 2013

15

608,753/9324

0.97 (0.84 to 1.10)

0.612245

24.10%

0.63 to 1.47

No

No

No

NS

All meat

Faramawi 2007

11

15,237/4835

1.27 (1.08 to1.49)

0.003529

0.00%

0.83 to 1.94

No

No

No

IV

seafood*

Lee 2008

12

NA/1375

1.05 (0.82 to 1.35)

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

-

Vegetables

Zhang 2017

16

1,365,634/9353

0.74 (0.63 to 0.86)

0.000073

51.30%

0.44 to 1.23

Yes

No

Yes

III

Fruits

Zhang 2017

17

1,398,778/9150

0.84 (0.69 to 1.02)

0.075352

50.90%

0.39 to 1.78

No

No

Yes

NS

Red meat†

Zhang 2017

19

1,826,171/12631

1.40 (1.15 to 1.70)

0.000807

71.40%

0.63 to 3.13

Yes

No

No

III

Processed meat

Zhang 2017

19

1,793,675/14240

1.13 (1.01 to 1.26)

0.030876

46.80%

0.78 to 1.64

No

No

No

IV

Poultry#

Faramawi 2007;

Lee 2008

16

NA/4165

1.23 (1.02 to 1.47)

0.030824

0.00%

0.88 to 1.70

No

No

Yes

IV

Cruciferous vegetables

Zhao 2013

12

1,228,518/5773

0.81 (0.71 to 0.92)

0.001107

55.70%

0.54 to 1.20

No

No

Yes

IV

Fruit and non-starchy vegetables

WCRF 2013

7

756,544/1215

0.99 (0.93 to 1.05)

0.748236

0.00%

0.85 to 1.15

Yes

No

No

NS

Non-starchy vegetables

WCRF 2013

8

1,248,385/3031

0.99 (0.91 to 1.09)

0.942029

0.00%

0.80 to 1.24

No

No

No

NS

Tomatoes

WCRF 2013

3

NA/427

1.11 (0.92 to 1.35)

0.28285

0.00%

0.27 to 4.51

No

No

No

NS

Citrus fruit

WCRF 2013

7

NA/2735

0.98 (0.90 to 1.05)

0.53534

0.00%

0.80 to 1.19

No

No

Yes

NS

Beverages

Sweetened carbonated beverage

Boyle 2014

5

NA/NA

1.35 (0.86 to 2.11)

0.187219

60.10%

0.28 to 6.51

No

No

NA

NS

Sweet beverages (include ASB and SSB)

Llaha 2021

3

143,194/1589

1.33 (0.74 to 2.40)

0.336717

85.60%

0.0008 to 2156.90

No

No

No

NS

Tea

Hu 2013

12

1,571,852/6636

1.05 (0.83 to 1.33)

0.680841

71.50%

0.44 to 2.49

No

No

No

NS

Coffee

Wijarnpreecha 2017

22

1,991,863/NA

0.99 (0.84 to 1.18)

0.949021

32.60%

0.50 to 1.98

No

No

No

NS

Alcoholic beverages

Beer

Cheng 2011

8

NA/5538

0.84 (0.70 to 1.00)

0.052184

14.80%

0.52 to 1.34

No

No

No

NS

Wine

Cheng 2011

8

NA/5538

0.70 (0.52 to 0.94)

0.019297

56.00%

0.30 to 1.70

No

No

Yes

IV

Spirits

Cheng 2011

9

NA/6393

0.80 (0.64 to 0.99)

0.048382

74.30%

0.39 to 1.62

No

No

Yes

IV

Alcohol (light)

Xu 2015

6

3,720,850/5214

0.91 (0.81 to 1.02)

0.102662

39.60%

0.64 to 1.28

No

No

No

NS

Alcohol (moderate)

Xu 2015

8

4,139,301/5364

0.77 (0.58 to 1.02)

0.069063

29.20%

0.30 to 1.98

No

No

Yes

NS

Alcohol (heavy)

Xu 2015

3

2,065,995/363

0.93 (0.27 to 3.22)

0.9134

81.20%

0.0000 to 3904180.81

No

Yes

Yes

NS

Alcohol (any)

Xu 2015

8

4,867,646/5503

0.88 (0.63 to 1.22)

0.439292

62.90%

0.27 to 2.81

No

Yes

Yes

NS

Macronutrients

Fruit fiber

Huang 2014

3

496,292/2906

0.91 (0.74 to 1.11)

0.346662

0.00%

0.14 to 6.06

No

No

No

NS

Vegetable fiber

Huang 2014

3

496,292/2906

0.68 (0.44 to 1.06)

0.089923

76.90%

0.003 to 139.60

Yes

No

No

NS

Cereal fiber

Huang 2014

3

496,292/2906

1.05 (0.88 to 1.26)

0.569512

0.00%

0.22 to 4.94

No

No

No

NS

Legume fiber*

Huang 2014

1

491,841/1816

0.80 (0.69 to 0.93)

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

-

Total fat

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

1.02 (0.98 to 1.07)

0.360753

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Saturated fat

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

1.05 (0.88 to 1.24)

0.60759

41.30%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Monounsaturated fat

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

0.98 (0.83 to 1.15)

0.762472

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Polyunsaturated fat

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

0.90 (0.75 to 1.07)

0.219824

18.90%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Animal fat*

Lee 2008

8

417,093/900

1.01 (0.96 to 1.07)

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

-

Plant fat*

Lee 2008

8

417,093/900

0.99 (0.93 to 1.05)

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

-

Cholesterol*

Lee 2008

13

774,952/1478

1.03 (0.94 to 1.14)

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

-

Total protein

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

1.08 (0.99 to 1.19)

0.09981

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Animal protein

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

1.10 (1.00 to 1.20)

0.04936

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

IV

Plant protein

WCRF 2013

14

1,210,245/1985

0.98 (0.80 to 1.22)

0.88739

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Dietary fiber

Xu 2019

7

942,582/6590

0.82 (0.71 to 0.95)

0.007181

27.60%

0.55 to 1.22

No

No

Yes

IV

Micronutrients

Riboflavin

Clasen 2020

3

39,789/1971

0.89 (0.70 to 1.13)

0.343247

0.00%

0.14 to 5.84

No

No

No

NS

Vitamin B6

Clasen 2020

5

164,883/2407

0.85 (0.70 to 1.04)

0.113403

0.00%

0.58 to 1.27

No

No

No

NS

Folate

Clasen 2020

6

136,319/3166

0.84 (0.69 to 1.03)

0.088191

6.00%

0.52 to 1.36

No

No

No

NS

Vitamin B12

Clasen 2020

3

127,390/1578

1.13 (0.88 to 1.46)

0.331795

0.00%

0.19 to 6.65

No

No

No

NS

Methionine

Clasen 2020

2

125,094/436

1.29 (0.90 to 1.85)

0.170519

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Choline

Clasen 2020

2

125,094/436

0.87 (0.63 to 1.22)

0.433326

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Betaine

Clasen 2020

2

125,094/436

1.01 (0.62 to 1.65)

0.962844

58.80%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Vitamin C

Jia 2015

10

274,864/5182

0.77 (0.66 to 0.90)

0.000636

0.00%

0.54 to 1.10

No

No

No

III

Vitamin D

Wu 2020

6

187,560/NA

0.89 (0.71 to 1.11)

0.286865

36.50%

0.48 to 1.64

No

No

No

NS

Dietary nitrate

Xie 2016

3

NA/NA

0.78 (0.40 to 1.55)

0.482996

89.20%

0.0002 to 3013.70

No

No

NA

NS

Dietary nitrite

Xie 2016

2

NA/NA

0.99 (0.81 to 1.21)

0.892113

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

NS

Vitamin E

Shen 2015

13

471,006/6944

0.81 (0.69 to 0.94)

0.006361

49.20%

0.52 to 1.26

No

No

No

IV

Alpha-carotene

WCRF 2013

4

284,501/787

0.96 (0.86 to 1.07)

0.448428

33.10%

0.32 to 2.86

No

No

No

NS

Beta-cryptoxanthin

WCRF 2013

4

284,501/787

0.97 (0.83 to 1.13)

0.700635

59.10%

0.19 to 4.91

No

No

Yes

NS

Lutein and zeaxanthin

WCRF 2013

4

284,501/787

0.99 (0.95 to 1.04)

0.827912

0.00%

0.71 to 1.40

Yes

No

No

NS

Lycopene

WCRF 2013

4

284,501/787

1.03 (0.73 to 1.47)

0.849859

5.90%

0.04 to 30.00

No

No

No

NS

Total calcium (food and supplements)

WCRF 2013

3

NA/1711

0.96 (0.94 to 0.99)

0.017337

0.00%

0.78 to 1.19

No

No

Yes

IV

Dietary calcium

WCRF 2013

3

NA/1574

0.98 (0.90 to 1.06)

0.614121

0.00%

0.45 to 2.12

No

No

No

NS

Calcium (supplements)

WCRF 2013

3

NA/1482

0.80 (0.64 to 0.99)

0.039569

0.00%

NA

NA

No

No

IV

  1. *SHR derived from published meta-analysis, no recalculation; †The association was not statistically significant after using the trim-and-fill method; #SHR was generated by combining the hazard ratios from the 2 meta-analyses; SHR summary hazard ratio; NA not available; NS nonsignificant; CI confidence intervals; PI prediction intervals; ASB artificially sweetened beverages; SSB sugar-sweetened beverages