Exposure | Reference | No of primary studies | No. of participants/no. of cases | Adjusted SHR (95%-CI) | P value | I2 | 95%-PI | Small study effects | Excess significance bias | Largest study significant | Level of evidence |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dietary patterns or dietary quality indices | |||||||||||
Healthy dietary pattern | Alizadeh 2017 | 4 | 51,709/1327 | 0.66 (0.51 to 0.85) | 0.001449 | 19.4% | 0.27 to 1.63 | No | No | No | IV |
Unhealthy/Western pattern | Alizadeh 2017 | 4 | 51,709/1327 | 1.54 (1.19 to 2.01) | 0.001232 | 24.70% | 0.62 to 3.84 | No | No | No | IV |
Drinking pattern | Alizadeh 2017 | 2 | 47,705/554 | 0.69 (0.47 to 1.01) | 0.057101 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Dietary Inflammatory Index | Jayedi 2018 | 2 | 36,118/1030 | 1.08 (1.03 to 1.13) | 0.00276 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | IV |
Glycemic index | Xu 2019 | 5 | 502,119/4281 | 1.18 (1.02 to 1.37) | 0.026826 | 26.00% | 0.79 to 1.75 | No | No | No | IV |
Glycemic load | Xu 2019 | 5 | 502,119/4281 | 1.16 (0.73 to 1.84) | 0.522525 | 82.40% | 0.21 to 6.45 | No | No | No | NS |
Foods | |||||||||||
Fish | Bai 2013 | 15 | 608,753/9324 | 0.97 (0.84 to 1.10) | 0.612245 | 24.10% | 0.63 to 1.47 | No | No | No | NS |
All meat | Faramawi 2007 | 11 | 15,237/4835 | 1.27 (1.08 to1.49) | 0.003529 | 0.00% | 0.83 to 1.94 | No | No | No | IV |
seafood* | Lee 2008 | 12 | NA/1375 | 1.05 (0.82 to 1.35) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | - |
Vegetables | Zhang 2017 | 16 | 1,365,634/9353 | 0.74 (0.63 to 0.86) | 0.000073 | 51.30% | 0.44 to 1.23 | Yes | No | Yes | III |
Fruits | Zhang 2017 | 17 | 1,398,778/9150 | 0.84 (0.69 to 1.02) | 0.075352 | 50.90% | 0.39 to 1.78 | No | No | Yes | NS |
Red meat†| Zhang 2017 | 19 | 1,826,171/12631 | 1.40 (1.15 to 1.70) | 0.000807 | 71.40% | 0.63 to 3.13 | Yes | No | No | III |
Processed meat | Zhang 2017 | 19 | 1,793,675/14240 | 1.13 (1.01 to 1.26) | 0.030876 | 46.80% | 0.78 to 1.64 | No | No | No | IV |
Poultry# | Faramawi 2007; Lee 2008 | 16 | NA/4165 | 1.23 (1.02 to 1.47) | 0.030824 | 0.00% | 0.88 to 1.70 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Cruciferous vegetables | Zhao 2013 | 12 | 1,228,518/5773 | 0.81 (0.71 to 0.92) | 0.001107 | 55.70% | 0.54 to 1.20 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Fruit and non-starchy vegetables | WCRF 2013 | 7 | 756,544/1215 | 0.99 (0.93 to 1.05) | 0.748236 | 0.00% | 0.85 to 1.15 | Yes | No | No | NS |
Non-starchy vegetables | WCRF 2013 | 8 | 1,248,385/3031 | 0.99 (0.91 to 1.09) | 0.942029 | 0.00% | 0.80 to 1.24 | No | No | No | NS |
Tomatoes | WCRF 2013 | 3 | NA/427 | 1.11 (0.92 to 1.35) | 0.28285 | 0.00% | 0.27 to 4.51 | No | No | No | NS |
Citrus fruit | WCRF 2013 | 7 | NA/2735 | 0.98 (0.90 to 1.05) | 0.53534 | 0.00% | 0.80 to 1.19 | No | No | Yes | NS |
Beverages | |||||||||||
Sweetened carbonated beverage | Boyle 2014 | 5 | NA/NA | 1.35 (0.86 to 2.11) | 0.187219 | 60.10% | 0.28 to 6.51 | No | No | NA | NS |
Sweet beverages (include ASB and SSB) | Llaha 2021 | 3 | 143,194/1589 | 1.33 (0.74 to 2.40) | 0.336717 | 85.60% | 0.0008 to 2156.90 | No | No | No | NS |
Tea | Hu 2013 | 12 | 1,571,852/6636 | 1.05 (0.83 to 1.33) | 0.680841 | 71.50% | 0.44 to 2.49 | No | No | No | NS |
Coffee | Wijarnpreecha 2017 | 22 | 1,991,863/NA | 0.99 (0.84 to 1.18) | 0.949021 | 32.60% | 0.50 to 1.98 | No | No | No | NS |
Alcoholic beverages | |||||||||||
Beer | Cheng 2011 | 8 | NA/5538 | 0.84 (0.70 to 1.00) | 0.052184 | 14.80% | 0.52 to 1.34 | No | No | No | NS |
Wine | Cheng 2011 | 8 | NA/5538 | 0.70 (0.52 to 0.94) | 0.019297 | 56.00% | 0.30 to 1.70 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Spirits | Cheng 2011 | 9 | NA/6393 | 0.80 (0.64 to 0.99) | 0.048382 | 74.30% | 0.39 to 1.62 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Alcohol (light) | Xu 2015 | 6 | 3,720,850/5214 | 0.91 (0.81 to 1.02) | 0.102662 | 39.60% | 0.64 to 1.28 | No | No | No | NS |
Alcohol (moderate) | Xu 2015 | 8 | 4,139,301/5364 | 0.77 (0.58 to 1.02) | 0.069063 | 29.20% | 0.30 to 1.98 | No | No | Yes | NS |
Alcohol (heavy) | Xu 2015 | 3 | 2,065,995/363 | 0.93 (0.27 to 3.22) | 0.9134 | 81.20% | 0.0000 to 3904180.81 | No | Yes | Yes | NS |
Alcohol (any) | Xu 2015 | 8 | 4,867,646/5503 | 0.88 (0.63 to 1.22) | 0.439292 | 62.90% | 0.27 to 2.81 | No | Yes | Yes | NS |
Macronutrients | |||||||||||
Fruit fiber | Huang 2014 | 3 | 496,292/2906 | 0.91 (0.74 to 1.11) | 0.346662 | 0.00% | 0.14 to 6.06 | No | No | No | NS |
Vegetable fiber | Huang 2014 | 3 | 496,292/2906 | 0.68 (0.44 to 1.06) | 0.089923 | 76.90% | 0.003 to 139.60 | Yes | No | No | NS |
Cereal fiber | Huang 2014 | 3 | 496,292/2906 | 1.05 (0.88 to 1.26) | 0.569512 | 0.00% | 0.22 to 4.94 | No | No | No | NS |
Legume fiber* | Huang 2014 | 1 | 491,841/1816 | 0.80 (0.69 to 0.93) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | - |
Total fat | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 1.02 (0.98 to 1.07) | 0.360753 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Saturated fat | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 1.05 (0.88 to 1.24) | 0.60759 | 41.30% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Monounsaturated fat | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 0.98 (0.83 to 1.15) | 0.762472 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Polyunsaturated fat | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 0.90 (0.75 to 1.07) | 0.219824 | 18.90% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Animal fat* | Lee 2008 | 8 | 417,093/900 | 1.01 (0.96 to 1.07) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | - |
Plant fat* | Lee 2008 | 8 | 417,093/900 | 0.99 (0.93 to 1.05) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | - |
Cholesterol* | Lee 2008 | 13 | 774,952/1478 | 1.03 (0.94 to 1.14) | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | - |
Total protein | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 1.08 (0.99 to 1.19) | 0.09981 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Animal protein | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 1.10 (1.00 to 1.20) | 0.04936 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | IV |
Plant protein | WCRF 2013 | 14 | 1,210,245/1985 | 0.98 (0.80 to 1.22) | 0.88739 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Dietary fiber | Xu 2019 | 7 | 942,582/6590 | 0.82 (0.71 to 0.95) | 0.007181 | 27.60% | 0.55 to 1.22 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Micronutrients | |||||||||||
Riboflavin | Clasen 2020 | 3 | 39,789/1971 | 0.89 (0.70 to 1.13) | 0.343247 | 0.00% | 0.14 to 5.84 | No | No | No | NS |
Vitamin B6 | Clasen 2020 | 5 | 164,883/2407 | 0.85 (0.70 to 1.04) | 0.113403 | 0.00% | 0.58 to 1.27 | No | No | No | NS |
Folate | Clasen 2020 | 6 | 136,319/3166 | 0.84 (0.69 to 1.03) | 0.088191 | 6.00% | 0.52 to 1.36 | No | No | No | NS |
Vitamin B12 | Clasen 2020 | 3 | 127,390/1578 | 1.13 (0.88 to 1.46) | 0.331795 | 0.00% | 0.19 to 6.65 | No | No | No | NS |
Methionine | Clasen 2020 | 2 | 125,094/436 | 1.29 (0.90 to 1.85) | 0.170519 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Choline | Clasen 2020 | 2 | 125,094/436 | 0.87 (0.63 to 1.22) | 0.433326 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Betaine | Clasen 2020 | 2 | 125,094/436 | 1.01 (0.62 to 1.65) | 0.962844 | 58.80% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Vitamin C | Jia 2015 | 10 | 274,864/5182 | 0.77 (0.66 to 0.90) | 0.000636 | 0.00% | 0.54 to 1.10 | No | No | No | III |
Vitamin D | Wu 2020 | 6 | 187,560/NA | 0.89 (0.71 to 1.11) | 0.286865 | 36.50% | 0.48 to 1.64 | No | No | No | NS |
Dietary nitrate | Xie 2016 | 3 | NA/NA | 0.78 (0.40 to 1.55) | 0.482996 | 89.20% | 0.0002 to 3013.70 | No | No | NA | NS |
Dietary nitrite | Xie 2016 | 2 | NA/NA | 0.99 (0.81 to 1.21) | 0.892113 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | NS |
Vitamin E | Shen 2015 | 13 | 471,006/6944 | 0.81 (0.69 to 0.94) | 0.006361 | 49.20% | 0.52 to 1.26 | No | No | No | IV |
Alpha-carotene | WCRF 2013 | 4 | 284,501/787 | 0.96 (0.86 to 1.07) | 0.448428 | 33.10% | 0.32 to 2.86 | No | No | No | NS |
Beta-cryptoxanthin | WCRF 2013 | 4 | 284,501/787 | 0.97 (0.83 to 1.13) | 0.700635 | 59.10% | 0.19 to 4.91 | No | No | Yes | NS |
Lutein and zeaxanthin | WCRF 2013 | 4 | 284,501/787 | 0.99 (0.95 to 1.04) | 0.827912 | 0.00% | 0.71 to 1.40 | Yes | No | No | NS |
Lycopene | WCRF 2013 | 4 | 284,501/787 | 1.03 (0.73 to 1.47) | 0.849859 | 5.90% | 0.04 to 30.00 | No | No | No | NS |
Total calcium (food and supplements) | WCRF 2013 | 3 | NA/1711 | 0.96 (0.94 to 0.99) | 0.017337 | 0.00% | 0.78 to 1.19 | No | No | Yes | IV |
Dietary calcium | WCRF 2013 | 3 | NA/1574 | 0.98 (0.90 to 1.06) | 0.614121 | 0.00% | 0.45 to 2.12 | No | No | No | NS |
Calcium (supplements) | WCRF 2013 | 3 | NA/1482 | 0.80 (0.64 to 0.99) | 0.039569 | 0.00% | NA | NA | No | No | IV |