Fig. 3

Effects of prenatal and postnatal factors on BMI growth outcomes in offspring of mothers with obesity. Shown are ORs and 95% CI of the influence of prenatal and postnatal factors on the development of an upper cluster of BMI growth (birth to age 5 years, panel A) and a “higher-than-normal BMI growth pattern,” defined as BMI z-score >1 SD [51] at least twice, during early phase (6 months to 2 years, panel B) and late phase (3 to 5 years, panel C) in offspring of mothers with obesity enrolled in the PEACHES cohort study. Values were derived from multivariable logistic regression with stepwise backward selection. Only final models based on the lowest Akaike information criterion are presented. Included variables in all initial models were maternal pre-conception BMI group, total GWG, GDM, parity, smoking during pregnancy, sex, birth weight category for gestational age and sex, SES, breastfeeding status at 1 month. Additionally, for associations shown in panel C, “higher-than-normal BMI growth pattern” in the early phase was also included as an explanatory variable in the initial model. BMI, body mass index; BF, breastfeeding; CI, confidence interval; GDM, gestational diabetes; GWG, gestational weight gain; LGA, large-for-gestational-age; OR, odds ratio; PEACHES, Programming of Enhanced Adiposity Risk in CHildhood–Early Screening; SES, socioeconomic status; SGA, small-for-gestational-age