Table 4 Summary of enumeration methods to sample MMPs for disease monitoring and surveillance

Garcia et al., 2014 [77]

Global

MMPs

Malaria

Mixed methods

Analyzed (micro)census, survey, and cellphone-based human population movement (HPM) data to map the connectivity of country and subnational AU through population movement. Combined these data with malaria transmission maps and global population dataset to identify hot spots of transmission and imported infection.

Certain regions and countries are more strongly connected because of high levels of HPM. Maps can be used to inform design of malaria elimination strategies by identifying regions that are less connected by HPM and therefore at less risk of re-transmission.

Giada et al., 2003 [86]

Tanzania

Refugees

n/a

Descriptive study

Used four methods—supervised classification, unsupervised classification, multi-resolution segmentation and mathematical morphology analysis—to identify refugee camps using IKONOS imagery.

Identified tents in refugee camps, subsequently managed to derive number of refugees and then created map of the camp. Found similar classification error rates (10 and 15%) as other methods, suggesting using this methodology for other geographical settings is applicable.

Hocini et al., 2018 [104]

Greater Mekong Subregion

MMPs

Malaria

Methods paper

Will use a focal test and treat intervention. Thirty peer navigators will be sent to seek out non-village based MMP. They will use GPS (global positioning system) to characterize movement patterns. They will collect data on time spent outdoors, outdoor movement during evening and dawn, time spent in forest, distance traveled and frequency of travel. Goal result is to examine collected GPS data and identify MMPs, MMPs with malaria, high density MMP areas and possible transmission hot spots.

Study ongoing.

Munoz et al., 2020 [95]

Venezuela

Migrants

n/a

Methods paper

Used Big Data to design a sampling frame to enumerate Venezuelan migrants in Ecuador. Employed Telefonica de Ecuador to implement three-phased sampling strategy: (1) Mobile phones were tagged as active, (2) Active phones were tagged as likely belonging to Venezuelans, (3) Active Venezuelan phones were assigned to primary sampling units where owner most likely resided.

The methodology is an adequate solution for enumerating migrants and identifying their location when censuses or central registries of migrants are not available.

Pelizari et al., 2018 [98]

Jordan

Migrants

n/a

Methods paper

Aimed identify built up settlements housing refugees. Approach embedded in object-based image analysis uses three components: (i) the computation of an exhaustive set of spectral-spatial features aggregated on multiple hierarchic segmentation scales, (ii) filter-based feature subset selection, and (iii) supervised classification using a Random Forest classifier.

Found all models had high accuracy values (ranging from 85.5 to 89.0%) of identifying built up settlements, temporary using multi-senor (MS and SAR) satellite imagery.

Research Innovation and Development for Health (RID4H), 2020 [72]

Burkina Faso

MMPs; IDPs

Trachoma; LF

Methods paper

An ongoing study that is identifying approaches for delivery of NTD surgical services to migrants and address barriers to receiving care. Methods include document review to assess facilities ability to provide MMDP services, use of mobile apps to track patients and refer care, key informant interviews (KIIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), and stakeholder buy-in.

Study ongoing.

Sightsavers, 2021 [101]

Cameroon

Nomadic pastoralists

NTDs; Onchocerciasis

Methods paper

Tested the ability of satellite imagery and GIS to remotely detect nomadic camps and help researchers target them for treatment. Obtained data through ESRI Geographical Information System software ArcGID PRO to produce and analyze spatial data. Then verified the camps in the field.

Field verification confirmed that more than 75% of camps identified as probable through satellite imagery were in fact camps. The imagery missed 8 camps known by local guides. Authors suggest this is fairly accurate but could be improved with high quality and recent satellite imagery.

Smith et al., 2019 [102]

Nepal

Migrant laborers

Malaria

Mixed methods

Used surveillance of passive and active imported case data and FGDs and KIIs to identify high-risk MMPs and areas where interventions could be adapted to target them. Modeled to investigate the association between indigenous case counts and importation rates. Findings suggest more than 50% of cases were imported. Most high-risk MMPs were adult migrant laborers. We are not able to coordinate surveillance when MMPs were leaving Nepal but were able to retrospectively survey population upon return from India.

Found that 54% of malaria cases reported between 2013 and 2016 were imported. There was a significant difference in gender such that male (85%) reported higher cases than females. Travel profiles suggest most MMPs travel to India for work for an average 3-day trip—increasing the risk of malaria transmission. In follow-up interviews, participants suggested most migrants would be willing and interested to participate in malaria screening if referred by a friend. Venue-based recruitment was also a well-liked option. Border screening was less popular.

Tompkins et al., 2016 [107]

Senegal

MMPs

Malaria

Methods paper

Analyzed Senegal mobile phone location data (from data 4 development) to determine characteristics of travel involving overnight stay which could impact malaria transmission. They defined “home” as place of most frequent calls and used 4 criteria to determine destination of travel. Then they calculated the proportion of trips involving an overnight stay. They created an agent-based model.

Found 60% of people have regular visits single destinations involving an overnight stay. Most visits involved a stay of only 1–2 nights. Findings suggest the ABM can approximately reproduce the patters of migration involving overnight stay. Authors note this study is limited as their reliance on mobile phone data may exclude those of lower socio-economic status.

Uzoma et al., 2019 [108]

Nigeria

Nomadic pastoralists

Polio

Methods paper

Mapped migratory routes of nomadic pastoralists in Borno State Nigeria. Their process included: stakeholder engagement, nomadic route mapping and validation, vaccination strategy for nomadic population, and tracking of nomadic vaccination activities (through GPS enabled smartphones). Central to their method was gaining community access through nomadic group leaders.

Successfully produced a map of nomadic routes using data from 4-step process. Found that nomads follow safe travel routes to avoid looting. The vaccination campaign was also successful—vaccinating nomadic temporary settlements or stops along the route. In 2017, 752 nomadic children received their first polio vaccination dose, which rose to 1155 in 2019 with this concerted nomadic vaccination effort.

Wangroongsarb et al., 2012 [110]

Cambodia, Myanmar, Thailand

Migrant laborers

Malaria

Mixed methods

Conducted a survey of migrant laborers in Thailand that came from Myanmar and Cambodia to determine demographics, migratory patterns, malaria knowledge and healthcare seeking tendencies. Employed respondent-driven sampling in lieu of cross-sectional or household survey methods due to lack of sampling frame. Trained health workers or survey staff in RDS and used coupons to recruit participants. Same size was approximately 1800.

Results suggest all migrants had come to Thailand due to working purposes. Healthcare utilization was higher among the Myanmar migrants compared to the Cambodian migrants (98 vs. 15%). The most predictive factor of treatment facility was proximity. The majority of the migrants had heard of malaria and knew it was transmitted by malaria (75–84%).

Wild et al., 2019 [111]

Ethiopia

Nomadic pastoralists

n/a

Methods paper

Developed a sampling strategy to survey mobile pastoralists by combining remote sensing and geospatial analysis. Used 0.5 m resolution satellite imagery of study area within 4 months of the survey. Implemented sampling frame using MCH indicators in Ethiopia.

Field validation confirms this method is comparable to conventional sampling frames. Authors suggest geospatial sampling methods used to enumerate mobile populations are cost-effective and logistically feasible.