Associations between types and sources of dietary carbohydrates and cardiovascular disease risk: a prospective cohort study of UK Biobank participants

Table 3 Hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) for the associations between each isoenergetic replacement of 5% of energy from free sugars or refined grains with other carbohydrates and incidence of total CVD, IHD, and total stroke in 110,497 UK Biobank participants

Isoenergetic substitution model^a	Total CVD (4188 cases)		IHD (3138 cases)		Total stroke (1124 cases)
Isoenergetic substitution model^a	HR (95% CI)	P-trend^b	HR (95%CI)	P-trend^b	HR (95%CI)	P-trend^b
Substituting 5% of energy from refined grain starch for 5% of energy from wholegrain starch	0.94 (0.91–0.98)	0.003*	0.94 (0.90–0.98)	0.006*	0.94 (0.87–1.01)	0.11
Substituting 5% of energy from free sugars for 5% of energy from non-free sugars	0.95 (0.92–0.98)	0.001*	0.96 (0.92–0.99)	0.023	0.91 (0.86–0.97)	0.005*

* P-trend statistically significant after using false discovery rate to correct for multiple testing
^a Isoenergetic substitution models included the same adjustments as per Fig. 2 excluding intake of SFA intake and fruit and vegetable intake, and were further adjusted for energy from all macronutrients excluding the carbohydrate type or source being replaced. Full details for each covariate are provided in the statistical analysis section in the main text
^b P-trend using continuous intakes. P-trend values ≥0.1 are displayed to two decimal places and P-trend values <0.1 are displayed to three decimal places
Abbreviations: CI confidence interval, CVD cardiovascular disease, HR hazard ration, IHD ischaemic heart disease, SFA saturated fatty acid