Table 1 Intervention target populations and effects

Cash transfers (unconditional)

Children below the poverty line

Reduces the incidence of SAM

Reduces the incidence of MAM

RRR = 0.32 (0.16-0.61) for SAM incidence

RRR = 0.40 (0.23-0.68) for MAM incidence [Langendorf et al. 2014, PLoS Med [50], Niger study comparing super cereal plus + cash (US$52 per month) compared to super cereal plus.]

Delayed umbilical cord clamping

Pregnant women (at birth, but impact is for children <1 month)

Reduces anaemia

RRR = 0.53 (0.40-0.70) for being anaemic [Hutton and Hassan, 2007 Jama [51]]

Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) education

For children < 1 months

Increases exclusive breastfeeding

OR = 2.17 (1.84-2.56) for exclusive breastfeeding [Sinha et al. 2017 J Nutr [52] for interventions delivered in home or community settings in low- and middle-income countries]

For children < 6 months

Increases exclusive breastfeeding

OR = 2.48 (1.99-3.09) for exclusive breastfeeding [Sinha et al. 2017 J Nutr [52] for interventions delivered in home or community settings in low- and middle-income countries]

For children 6-23 months

Increases age-appropriate (partial) breastfeeding

OR = 1.82 (1.36-2.45) for age-appropriate breastfeeding; [Sinha et al. 2017 J Nutr [52]]

For children 6-23 months

Promotion of appropriate complementary feeding reduces odds of stunting

OR = 0.77 for stunting; [Panjwani et al. 2017 J Nutr [53] food secure population with nutrition education or counselling compared to receiving no intervention]

Immediate initiation of breastfeeding

Children < 1 month

Increases exclusive breastfeeding

Reduces deaths due to prematurity

OR = 1.50 (1.26-1.78) for exclusive breastfeeding in children < 1 month.

OR = 1.39 (1.11-1.74) for exclusive breastfeeding in children 1-6 months [Boundy et al. 2016, Pediatrics [54]]

RRR = 0.49 (0.29-0.82) for mortality due to prematurity [Lawn et al. 2010, I J Emi 2010 [55]]

Lipid-based nutrition supplements

Children 6-23 months old who live in households below the poverty line

Reduces the odds of stunting

Reduces the incidence of SAM

Reduces the incidence of MAM

Reduces anaemia

OR = 0.89 for stunting [Panjwani et al. 2017 J Nutr [53] food insecure with supplementation compared to no supplementation]

RRR = 0.915 for SAM and MAM incidence [based on Panjwani et al. 2017 J Nutr [53] food insecure with supplementation compared to no supplementation]

RRR = 0.69 (0.60-0.78) for anaemia [De-Regil et al. 2013 Cochrane review [56], assumed the same as micronutrient powders]

Oral rehydration solution (ORS) + Zinc

Children 0-59 months (different quantity by age)

Reduces diarrhoea mortality

RRR = 0.24 (0.15-0.38) for diarrhoea mortality. Calculated as RRR = 0.31 (0.20-0.49) for ORS [Munos, et al. 2010, I J Epi [57]], with additional RRR of 0.77 due to the addition of zinc [Walker & Black 2010, I J Epi [58]]

Public provision of complementary foods

Children 6-23 months old who live in households below the poverty line

Reduces the odds of stunting

Reduces the incidence of SAM

Reduces the incidence of MAM

OR = 0.89 for stunting [Panjwani et al. 2017 J Nutr [53] food insecure with supplementation compared to no supplementation]

RRR = 0.915 for SAM and MAM incidence [based on Panjwani et al. 2017 J Nutr [53] food insecure with supplementation compared to no supplementation]

Treatment of severe acute malnutrition (SAM)

Children experiencing SAM

Increases recovery from episode

78% recovery for wasting among children receiving intervention [Bhutta et al. 2013, Lenters et al. 2013 [10, 59]].

Note that this intervention is defined as treating children until they reach a weight-for-height of three standard deviations below the WHO Child Growth Standards median, at which point their mortality risks are significantly reduced but they are still defined as being wasted (i.e. children who are severely wasted are treated to become only moderately wasted, but wasted nonetheless).

Vitamin A supplementation

Children 6-59 months

Reduces diarrhoea incidence mortality

RRR = 0.85 (0.82-0.87) for diarrhoea incidence [Imdad et al. 2017, Cochrane review [60]]

RRR = 0.88 (0.79-0.98) for diarrhoea-specific mortality [Imdad et al. 2017, Cochrane review [60]]

Balanced energy-protein supplementation

Pregnant women below the poverty line

Reduces risk of small for gestational age (SGA) birth outcomes

RRR = 0.79 (0.69-0.90) for SGA birth outcomes [Ota et al. 2015, The Cochrane Library [61]]

Calcium supplementation

Pregnant women

Reduces maternal mortality (hypertensive disorders)

Reduces pre-term births

RRR = 0.80 (0.66-0.98) for maternal mortality [Hofmeyr et al. 2018 Cochrane review [62]]

RRR = 0.76 (0.60-0.97) for preterm birth [Hofmeyr et al. 2018 Cochrane review [62]]

Iron and folic acid supplementation

Women of reproductive age (pregnant / non-pregnant)

Reduces anaemia

Reduces neonatal mortality

RRR = 0.33 (0.16-0.69) for anaemia in pregnant women [Pena-Rosas et al, Cochrane Database Reviews 2015 [63]]

RRR = 0.73 (0.56-0.95) for anaemia in non-pregnant women [Fernandez-Gaxiola & De-Regil 2011, Cochrane Database Syst Rev [64]]

Intermittent preventative treatment of malaria during pregnancy

Pregnant women in areas where there is malaria risk

Reduces anaemia

Reduces SGA birth outcomes

RRR = 0.83 (0.74-0.93) for being anaemic [Radeva-Petrova et al. 2014, The Cochrane Library [65]]

RRR = 0.65 (0.55-0.77) for SGA birth outcomes [Eisele et al. 2010, I J Epi [66]]

Multiple micronutrient supplementation

Pregnant women

Reduces anaemia and risk of SGA birth outcomes

RRR = 0.33 (0.16-0.69) for anaemia in pregnant women [Pena-Rosas et al, Cochrane Database Reviews 2015 [63]]

RRR = 0.92 (0.88-0.97) for SGA births [Keats et al. 2019 Cochrane Database Reviews [67]]

Iron and folic acid fortification (wheat, maize or rice)

Everyone

Reduces anaemia

Reduces neonatal mortality

OR = 0.976 (0.975-0.978) for being anaemic [Barkley et al. 2015, B J Nutrition [68]]

RRR = 0.87 (0.84-0.89) of neonatal mortality [prevention of neural tube defects Blencowe et al. 2010, I J Epidemiology [69]]

Iron and iodine fortification of salt

Everyone

Reduces anaemia

Reduces neonatal mortality

OR = 0.976 (0.975-0.978) for being anaemic [Barkley et al. 2015, B J Nutrition [68]]

Long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets

Everyone in areas where there is malaria risk

Reduces anaemia

Reduces SGA birth outcomes

RRR = 0.83 (0.74-0.93) for anaemia [Radeva-Petrova et al. 2014, The Cochrane Library [65]]

RRR = 0.65 (0.55-0.77) for SGA birth outcomes [Eisele et al. 2010, Int J Epi [66]]