Table 2 Basic descriptive and results of unadjusted logistic regression with select risk factors for all live births between January and December 2016 and neonatal deaths in 0–2, 3–7, and 8–27 days for those who participated in the detailed interview
Risk factor | All live births, N = 19,877 (%) | Neonatal mortality | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–2 days, N = 280 (%) | Unadjusted OR for 0–2-day death (95% CI) | 3–7 days, N = 100 (%) | Unadjusted OR for 3–7-day deaths (95% CI) | 8–27 days, N = 93 (%) | Unadjusted OR for 8–27-day death (95% CI) | |||
Socio-demographic | ||||||||
Place of residence | Rural | 18,126 (91.2%) | 265 (94.6%) | 1.72 (1.02–2.90) | 93 (93.0%) | 1.29 (0.60–1.53) | 89 (95.7%) | 2.17 (0.80–5.92) |
Urban | 1751 (8.8%) | 15 (5.4%) | 1.00 | 7 (7.0%) | 1.00 | 4 (4.3%) | 1.00 | |
Wealth indexa | Quartile 1 | 4938 (24.9%) | 72 (25.7%) | 1.49 (1.03–2.15) | 17 (17.2%) | 0.86 (0.45–1.65) | 31 (33.3%) | 2.63 (1.35–5.13) |
Quartile 2 | 4935 (24.9%) | 94 (33.6%) | 1.96 (1.38–2.77) | 24 (24.2%) | 1.22 (0.68–2.22) | 25 (26.9%) | 2.13 (1.07–4.25) | |
Quartile 3 | 4970 (25.1%) | 65 (23.2%) | 1.34 (0.92–1.94) | 38 (38.4%) | 1.92 (1.12–3.30) | 25 (26.9%) | 2.11 (1.06–4.21) | |
Quartile 4 | 4986 (25.1%) | 49 (17.5%) | 1.00 | 20 (20.2%) | 1.00 | 12 (12.9%) | 1.00 | |
Sex of baby | Girl | 9669 (48.6%) | 119 (42.5%) | 1.00 | 48 (48.0%) | 1.00 | 39 (41.9%) | 1.00 |
Boy | 10,208 (51.4%) | 161 (57.5%) | 1.29 (1.01–1.63) | 52 (52.0%) | 1.03 (0.69–1.53) | 54 (58.1%) | 1.32 (0.87–1.99) | |
Maternal | ||||||||
Maternal ageb | 15–19 years | 924 (4.7%) | 20 (7.1%) | 1.00 | 6 (6.0%) | 1.00 | 5 (5.4%) | 1.00 |
20–24 years | 8287 (41.7%) | 130 (46.4%) | 0.72 (0.45–1.16) | 52 (52.0%) | 0.96 (0.41–2.24) | 39 (41.9%) | 0.86 (0.34–2.20) | |
25–29 years | 7570 (38.1%) | 85 (30.4%) | 0.51 (0.31–0.84) | 28 (28.0%) | 0.56 (0.23–1.36) | 30 (32.3%) | 0.72 (0.28–1.86) | |
≥ 30 years | 3093 (15.6%) | 45 (16.1%) | 0.67 (0.39–1.14) | 14 (14.0%) | 0.69 (0.26–1.80) | 19 (20.4%) | 1.13 (0.42–3.02) | |
Any tobacco use ever | Yes | 518 (2.6%) | 13 (4.6%) | 1.84 (1.05–3.23) | 5 (5.0%) | 2.00 (0.81–4.94) | 2 (2.2%) | 0.83 (0.20–3.40) |
No | 19,359 (97.4%) | 267 (95.4%) | 1.00 | 95 (95.0%) | 1.00 | 91 (97.9%) | 1.00 | |
Primiparity | Yes | 4733 (23.8%) | 87 (31.1%) | 1.45 (1.12–1.87) | 34 (34.0%) | 1.66 (1.10–2.52) | 22 (23.7%) | 1.00 (0.62–1.62) |
No | 15,144 (76.2%) | 193 (68.9%) | 1.00 | 66 (66.0%) | 1.00 | 71 (76.3%) | 1.00 | |
Diabetes mellitus irrespective of pregnancyc | Yes | 62 (0.3%) | 0 (0.0%) | NA | 0 (0.0%) | NA | 0 (0.0%) | NA |
No | 19,452 (99.7%) | 275 (100.0%) | NA | 99 (100.0%) | NA | 91 (100.0%) | NA | |
Hypertension irrespective of pregnancyd | Yes | 335 (1.7%) | 6 (2.2%) | 1.28 (0.57–2.89) | 2 (2.0%) | 1.19 (0.29–4.84) | 1 (1.1%) | 0.63 (0.09–4.55) |
No | 19,209 (98.3%) | 270 (97.8%) | 1.00 | 97 (98.0%) | 1.00 | 91 (98.9%) | 1.00 | |
Pregnancy | ||||||||
At least one antenatal care visit during pregnancye | Yes | 16,151 (81.3%) | 228 (81.4%) | 1.00 | 74 (74.0%) | 1.00 | 74 (79.6%) | 1.00 |
No | 3725 (18.7%) | 52 (18.6%) | 0.99 (0.73–1.34) | 26 (26.0%) | 1.53 (0.98–2.39) | 19 (20.4%) | 1.12 (0.67–1.85) | |
Received 2 tetanus toxoid injections during pregnancyf | Yes | 16,091 (81.2%) | 206 (73.6%) | 1.00 | 74 (74.0%) | 1.00 | 70 (75.3%) | 1.00 |
No | 3735 (18.8%) | 74 (26.4%) | 1.56 (1.19–2.04) | 26 (26.0%) | 1.53 (0.98–2.39) | 23 (24.7%) | 1.43 (0.89–2.30) | |
Consumed iron folic acid tablets during pregnancyg | Yes | 8007 (40.5%) | 105 (37.6%) | 1.00 | 35 (35.0%) | 1.00 | 36 (38.7%) | 1.00 |
No | 11,752 (59.5%) | 174 (62.5%) | 1.13 (0.89–1.44) | 65 (65.0%) | 1.27 (0.84–1.92) | 57 (61.3%) | 1.08 (0.71–1.64) | |
Pregnancy with multiple foetuses | Yes | 336 (1.7%) | 21 (7.5%) | 4.96 (3.14–7.85) | 12 (12.0%) | 7.80 (4.13–14.75) | 17 (18.3%) | 16.04 (9.47–27.19) |
No | 19,541 (98.3%) | 259 (92.5%) | 1.00 | 88 (88.0%) | 1.00 | 76 (81.7%) | 1.00 | |
Hypertension in the last trimester of pregnancyh | Yes | 504 (2.6%) | 14 (5.1%) | 2.06 (1.20–3.56) | 2 (2.0%) | 0.79 (0.19–3.22) | 4 (4.6%) | 1.84 (0.67–5.02) |
No | 19,908 (97.4%) | 261 (94.9%) | 1.00 | 97 (98.0%) | 1.00 | 84 (95.5%) | 1.00 | |
Malaria in last 3 months of pregnancyi | Yes | 449 (2.3%) | 4 (1.5%) | 0.62 (0.23–1.67) | 3 (3.0%) | 1.32 (0.42–4.19) | 1 (1.1%) | 0.47 (0.07–3.37) |
No | 19,064 (97.7%) | 272 (98.6%) | 1.00 | 96 (97.0%) | 1.00 | 90 (98.9%) | 1.00 | |
Syphilis during pregnancyj | Yes | 83 (0.4%) | 1 (0.4%) | 0.86 (0.12–6.17) | 0 (0.0%) | NA | 0 (0.0%) | NA |
Do not know | 1151 (5.8%) | 17 (6.1%) | 1.05 (0.64–1.72) | 8 (8.0%) | 1.41 (0.68–2.92) | 6 (6.5%) | 1.12 (0.49–2.57) | |
No | 18,642 (93.8%) | 262 (93.6%) | 1.00 | 92 (92.0%) | 1.00 | 87 (93.6%) | 1.00 | |
Fever in the last 3 months of pregnancyk | Yes | 3547 (18.0%) | 33 (11.9%) | 0.61 (0.42–0.88) | 18 (18.0%) | 0.99 (0.60–1.65) | 17 (18.3%) | 1.01 (0.60–1.71) |
No | 16,130 (82.0%) | 244 (88.1%) | 1.00 | 82 (82.0%) | 1.00 | 76 (81.7%) | 1.00 | |
Convulsion in last 3 months of pregnancyl | Yes | 2215 (11.3%) | 36 (13.0%) | 1.18 (0.83–1.68) | 10 (10.2%) | 0.89 (0.46–1.72) | 7 (7.5%) | 0.64 (0.29–1.38) |
No | 17,333 (88.7%) | 240 (87.0%) | 1.00 | 88 (89.8%) | 1.00 | 86 (92.5%) | 1.00 | |
Mother is informed the baby was not growing adequately inside the wombm | Yes | 679 (3.5%) | 18 (6.5%) | 1.33 (0.42–4.18) | 3 (3.1%) | 0.91 (0.29–2.89) | 8 (8.7%) | 2.71 (1.31–5.63) |
No | 18,959 (96.5%) | 261 (93.6%) | 1.00 | 93 (96.9%) | 1.00 | 84 (91.3%) | 1.00 | |
Gestation period | ≤ 8 months | 477 (2.4%) | 73 (26.1%) | 16.75 (12.61–22.27) | 14 (14.0%) | 7.98 (4.49–14.15) | 16 (17.2%) | 10.57 (6.11–18.29) |
> 8 months | 19,400 (97.6%) | 207 (73.9%) | 1.00 | 86 (86.0%) | 1.00 | 77 (82.8%) | 1.00 | |
Labour | ||||||||
Mother had come for delivery earlier but was asked to come later for delivery (deferred deliveryn | Yes | 160 (0.8%) | 3 (1.1%) | 1.33 (0.42–4.18) | 3 (3.1%) | 3.97 (1.24–12.66) | 4 (4.5%) | 5.98 (2.17–16.51) |
No | 19,515 (99.2%) | 277 (98.9%) | 1.00 | 94 (96.9%) | 1.00 | 85 (95.5%) | 1.00 | |
Spontaneous labouro | Yes | 14,637 (74.1%) | 189 (68.2%) | 1.00 | 65 (67.0%) | 1.00 | 62 (69.7%) | 1.00 |
No | 5120 (25.9%) | 88 (31.8%) | 1.34 (1.04–1.73) | 32 (33.0%) | 1.42 (0.93–2.17) | 27 (30.3%) | 1.25 (0.80–1.97) | |
Foul-smelling liquorp | Yes | 976 (4.9%) | 20 (7.2%) | 1.50 (0.95–2.38) | 8 (8.1%) | 1.71 (0.83–3.53) | 7 (7.7%) | 1.62 (0.75–3.52) |
No | 18,768 (95.1%) | 258 (92.8%) | 1.00 | 91 (91.9%) | 1.00 | 84 (92.3%) | 1.00 | |
Labour for more than 12 hq | Yes | 3040 (15.4%) | 47 (17.0%) | 1.13 (0.82–1.54) | 17 (17.2%) | 1.14 (0.68–1.93) | 16 (17.6%) | 1.18 (0.69–2.02) |
No | 16,720 (84.6%) | 230 (83.0%) | 1.00 | 82 (82.8%) | 1.00 | 75 (82.4%) | 1.00 | |
Delivery | ||||||||
Place of deliveryr | Public | 10,623 (53.5%) | 120 (42.9%) | 1.00 | 54 (54.0%) | 42 (45.2%) | 1.00 | |
Private | 3314 (16.7%) | 76 (27.1%) | 2.05 (1.54–2.75) | 22 (22.0%) | 1.32 (0.81–2.18) | 23 (24.7%) | 1.78 (1.07–2.97) | |
Home | 5922 (29.8%) | 84 (30.0%) | 1.26 (0.95–1.67) | 24 (24.0%) | 0.80 (0.49–1.29) | 28 (30.1%) | 1.20 (0.74–1.94) | |
Mother had gone to a health facility for delivery but delivered in another facility (referred delivery)s | Yes | 781 (5.6%) | 29 (14.9%) | 3.02 (2.02–4.51) | 6 (7.9%) | 1.48 (0.64–3.43) | 8 (12.5%) | 2.49 (1.18–5.24) |
No | 13,154 (94.4%) | 166 (85.1%) | 1.00 | 70 (92.1%) | 1.00 | 56 (87.5%) | 1.00 | |
Vaginal deliveryt | Yes | 17,867 (90.0%) | 243 (87.1%) | 0.75 (0.53–1.07) | 82 (82.0%) | 0.50 (0.30–0.84) | 81 (89.0%) | 0.89 (0.46–1.73) |
No | 1991 (10.0%) | 36 (12.9%) | 1.00 | 18 (18.0%) | 1.00 | 10 (11.0%) | 1.00 | |
Push/pull done during delivery by the health provideru | Yes | 965 (5.0%) | 40 (14.6%) | 3.38 (2.40–4.76) | 15 (15.2%) | 3.57 (2.06–6.22) | 4 (4.4%) | 0.92 (0.34–2.51) |
No | 18,533 (95.1%) | 234 (85.4%) | 1.00 | 84 (84.9%) | 1.00 | 87 (95.6%) | 1.00 | |
Entangled cord around the baby’s neckv | Yes | 761 (3.8%) | 21 (7.5%) | 2.04 (1.30–3.21) | 7 (7.0%) | 1.89 (0.87–4.10) | 4 (4.3%) | 1.15 (0.42–3.14) |
Do not know | 1748 (8.8%) | 20 (7.2%) | 0.83 (0.53–1.32) | 7 (7.0%) | 0.81 (0.37–1.74) | 8 (8.6%) | 0.98 (0.47–2.02) | |
No | 17,351 (87.4%) | 238 (85.3%) | 1.00 | 86 (86.0%) | 1.00 | 81 (87.1%) | 1.00 | |
Breech position of the babyw | Yes | 633 (3.2%) | 30 (11.0%) | 3.82 (2.59–5.63) | 6 (6.1%) | 2.00 (0.87–4.60) | 7 (7.5%) | 2.55 (1.17–5.53) |
No | 18,888 (96.8%) | 243 (89.0%) | 1.00 | 93 (93.9%) | 1.00 | 86 (92.5%) | 1.00 | |
Antiseptic cord care | Yes | 4966 (25.0%) | 31 (11.1%) | 1.00 | 23 (23.0%) | 1.00 | 20 (21.5%) | 1.00 |
No | 11,901 (59.9%) | 183 (65.4%) | 2.49 (1.70–3.64) | 61 (61.0%) | 1.12 (0.69–1.81) | 62 (66.7%) | 1.31 (0.79–2.17) | |
Do not know | 3010 (15.1%) | 66 (23.6%) | 3.57 (2.32–5.48) | 16 (16.0%) | 1.17 (0.62–2.21) | 11 (11.8%) | 0.92 (0.44–1.93) | |
Birthweight of the baby (kg)x | ≥ 2.5 | 11,401 (57.9%) | 57 (37.8%) | 1.00 | 38 (43.2%) | 1 | 37 (41.6%) | 1 |
< 2.5 | 2037 (10.4%) | 27 (17.9%) | 2.67 (1.69–4.24) | 19 (21.6%) | 2.84 (1.63–4.93) | 30 (33.7%) | 4.66 (2.87–7.56) | |
Never weighted | 4704 (23.9%) | 53 (35.1%) | 2.18 (1.52–3.12) | 23 (26.1%) | 1.32 (0.80–2.17) | 18 (20.2%) | 1.10 (0.64–1.91) | |
Do not know if weighted | 1547 (7.9%) | 14 (9.3%) | 1.74 (0.98–3.11) | 8 (9.1%) | 1.39 (0.66–2.95) | 4 (4.5%) | 0.74 (0.27–2.07) | |
Postnatal care | ||||||||
Baby put in an incubator after birthy | Yes | 984 (5.1%) | 31 (31.0%) | 8.68 (5.65–13.33) | 25 (26.9%) | 7.27 (4.57–11.55) | ||
No | 18,482 (94.9%) | 69 (69.0%) | 1.00 | 68 (73.1%) | 1.00 | |||
Received delayed bathing, skin-to-skin care, and immediate breastfeedingz | Yes | 2124 (10.9%) | 6 (6.3%) | 1.00 | 7 (7.8%) | 1.00 | ||
No | 17,435 (89.1%) | 89 (93.7%) | 1.81 (0.79–4.14) | 83 (92.2%) | 1.45 (0.67–3.14) | |||
Received postnatal care within 1 week of birth | Yes | 7009 (35.8%) | 41 (41.0%) | 1.00 | 35 (37.6%) | 1.00 | ||
No | 12,588 (64.2%) | 59 (59.0%) | 0.80 (0.54–1.19) | 58 (62.4%) | 0.92 (0.60–1.40) | |||
Illness and treatment during neonatal periodaa | No illness | 15,862 (90.0%) | 25 (25.5%) | 1.00 | 39 (41.9%) | 1.00 | ||
Untreated illness | 1381 (7.0%) | 38 (38.8%) | 17.92 (10.79–29.78) | 22 (23.7%) | 6.75 (3.99–11.41) | |||
Ill and out-patient treatment sought | 1936 (9.9%) | 12 (12.2%) | 3.95 (1.98–7.88) | 14 (15.1%) | 2.97 (1.61–5.48) | |||
Illness that required hospitalization | 409 (2.1%) | 23 (23.5%) | 37.75 (21.24–67.09) | 18 (19.4%) | 19.81 (11.23–34.96) | |||