Determinants of pre-vaccination antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2: a population-based longitudinal study (COVIDENCE UK)

Talaei, Mohammad; Faustini, Sian; Holt, Hayley; Jolliffe, David A.; Vivaldi, Giulia; Greenig, Matthew; Perdek, Natalia; Maltby, Sheena; Bigogno, Carola M.; Symons, Jane; Davies, Gwyneth A.; Lyons, Ronan A.; Griffiths, Christopher J.; Kee, Frank; Sheikh, Aziz; Richter, Alex G.; Shaheen, Seif O.; Martineau, Adrian R.

doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02286-4

Table 2 Minimally adjusted and fully adjusted odds of seropositivity

From: Determinants of pre-vaccination antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2: a population-based longitudinal study (COVIDENCE UK)

	Seropositive participants	Minimally adjusted model^a		Fully adjusted model^b
	n/N (%)	OR (95% CI)	p value	OR (95% CI)	p value
Sociodemographic, occupational and lifestyle factors
Age (years)
< 30	45/323 (13.9%)	1.00		1.00
30 to < 40	116/651 (17.8%)	1.34 (0.92–1.95)	0.13	1.42 (0.94–2.15)	0.09
40 to < 50	241/1246 (19.3%)	1.48 (1.05–2.09)	0.03	1.50 (1.01–2.24)	0.04
50 to < 60	419/2545 (16.5%)	1.22 (0.88–1.71)	0.23	1.31 (0.89–1.93)	0.17
60 to < 70	557/4098 (13.6%)	0.98 (0.71–1.37)	0.92	1.22 (0.82–1.82)	0.34
≥ 70	318/2267 (14.0%)	1.03 (0.73–1.44)	0.89	1.41 (0.92–2.15)	0.11
p for trend			0.89		0.91
Sex
Female	1177/7806 (15.1%)	1.00		1.00
Male	519/3324 (15.6%)	1.10 (0.98–1.24)	0.10	1.06 (0.93–1.20)	0.39
Ethnicity
White	1598/10,651 (15.0%)	1.00		1.00
Black, African, Caribbean, or Black British	10/49 (20.4%)	1.30 (0.96–1.76)	0.09	1.24 (0.90–1.71)	0.20
South Asian^c	34/145 (23.4%)	1.65 (1.12–2.45)	0.01	1.65 (1.10–2.49)	0.02
Mixed, multiple, or other ethnic groups	54/285 (18.9%)	1.36 (0.67–2.73)	0.40	1.14 (0.52–2.50)	0.74
Housing
Owns own home	991/7059 (14.0%)	1.00		1.00
Mortgage	481/2716 (17.7%)	1.14 (0.99–1.32)	0.07	1.09 (0.93–1.27)	0.28
Privately renting	108/654 (16.5%)	1.12 (0.88–1.42)	0.36	1.23 (0.95–1.58)	0.11
Renting from council	56/318 (17.6%)	1.20 (0.89–1.62)	0.24	1.32 (0.94–1.87)	0.11
Other	60/382 (15.7%)	1.09 (0.79–1.50)	0.60	1.11 (0.80–1.55)	0.53
Claiming Universal Credit
No	1654/10,823 (15.3%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	35/275 (12.7%)	0.73 (0.51–1.05)	0.09	0.72 (0.49–1.05)	0.09
Number of people per bedroom
≤ 0.5	590/4382 (13.5%)	1.00		1.00
> 0.5 to < 1	499/3085 (16.2%)	1.18 (1.04–1.35)	0.01	1.04 (0.90–1.21)	0.57
1 to < 2	559/3355 (16.7%)	1.13 (0.98–1.30)	0.09	0.97 (0.83–1.14)	0.73
≥ 2	35/237 (14.8%)	0.96 (0.66–1.41)	0.85	0.73 (0.48–1.11)	0.15
p for trend			0.13		0.42
Multigenerational household
Living alone	265/1997 (13.3%)	1.00		1.00
Single generation	925/6055 (15.3%)	1.17 (1.01–1.36)	0.03	1.14 (0.95–1.38)	0.17
Two-generation	488/2990 (16.3%)	1.19 (1.01–1.40)	0.04	1.17 (0.94–1.45)	0.15
Three-generation	18/88 (20.5%)	1.61 (0.94–2.76)	0.08	1.64 (0.91–2.96)	0.10
p for trend	··	··	0.03	··	0.08
Shares home with working-age adult (16–64 years)
No	724/5353 (13.5%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	968/5748 (16.8%)	1.21 (1.06–1.37)	0.003	1.08 (0.93–1.26)	0.32
Highest educational level attained
Primary or secondary	198 (16.6%)	1.00		1.00
Higher or further education (A levels or TEC)	244 (15.3%)	0.92 (0.75–1.13)	0.42	0.94 (0.76–1.17)	0.60
College or university	777 (15.7%)	0.95 (0.80–1.13)	0.54	0.94 (0.78–1.12)	0.47
Postgraduate degree	476 (14.1%)	0.83 (0.69–0.99)	0.04	0.82 (0.67–0.99)	0.04
p for trend			0.04		0.03
Frontline worker
No	1369/9422 (14.5%)	1.00		1.00
Non-health	197/1201 (16.4%)	1.13 (0.95–1.33)	0.17	1.02 (0.85–1.22)	0.86
Health or care	130/499 (26.1%)	2.02 (1.63–2.50)	< 0.001	1.86 (1.48–2.33)	< 0.001
Travel to place of work or study in past week
No	669/5031 (13.3%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	1014/5981 (17.0%)	1.31 (1.17–1.46)	< 0.001	1.20 (1.07–1.35)	< 0.001
Number of public transport journeys per week
0	1502/9923 (15.1)	1.00		1.00
1–5	135/849 (15.9)	1.24 (1.02–1.51)	0.03	1.19 (0.97–1.47)	0.09
≥ 6	55/322 (17.1)	1.32 (0.98–1.78)	0.07	1.24 (0.90–1.69)	0.18
p for trend			0.01		0.05
Number of visits to shops and other indoor public places per week
0	220/1514 (14.5)	1.00		1.00
1–2	560/3611(15.5)	1.15 (0.97–1.37)	0.10	1.12 (0.94–1.34)	0.20
2–4	413/2578 (16.0)	1.33 (1.11–1.60)	0.002	1.27 (1.05–1.53)	0.02
≥ 5	503/3413 (14.7)	1.36 (1.13–1.64)	0.001	1.29 (1.06–1.57)	0.01
p for trend			< 0.001		0.01
Travel outside of the UK between November 2019, and February 2021^d
No	926/6529 (14.2%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	572/3507 (16.3%)	1.19 (1.07–1.34)	0.002	1.20 (1.07–1.36)	0.002
Tobacco smoking status
Never-smoker	930/6281 (14.8%)	1.00		1.00
Ex–smoker	690/4325 (16.0%)	1.10 (0.98–1.22)	0.09	1.05 (0.94–1.18)	0.42
Current smoker	76/524 (14.5%)	0.90 (0.70–1.16)	0.43	0.81 (0.61–1.07)	0.14
Regular environmental tobacco smoke exposure
No	1672/10,925 (15.3%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	23/203 (11.3%)	0.65 (0.42–1.01)	0.05	0.59 (0.37–0.95)	0.03
Alcohol (units per week)
None	438/2986 (14.7%)	1.00		1.00
1–7	610/3932 (15.5%)	1.11 (0.97–1.27)	0.13	1.09 (0.95–1.26)	0.22
8–14	318/2249 (14.1%)	1.00 (0.86–1.17)	0.99	1.01 (0.85–1.19)	0.92
≥ 15	330/1962 (16.8%)	1.22 (1.04–1.43)	0.02	1.23 (1.04–1.46)	0.02
p for trend			0.07		0.06
Light physical exercise (hours per week)
0–4	614/3631 (16.9%)	1.00		1.00
5–9	613/3714 (16.5%)	1.01 (0.90–1.15)	0.83	1.03 (0.90–1.17)	0.69
≥ 10	468/3764 (12.4%)	0.78 (0.68–0.89)	< 0.001	0.80 (0.70–0.93)	0.003
p for trend	··	··	< 0.001	··	0.003
Lower impact physical activity (hours per week)
0	991/6272 (15.8%)	1.00		1.00
1	322/2131 (15.1%)	0.95 (0.83–1.09)	0.46	0.97 (0.84–1.12)	0.71
≥ 2	378/2695 (14.0%)	0.87 (0.77–1.00)	0.04	0.93 (0.81–1.07)	0.33
p for trend	··	··	0.04	··	0.33
Diet and supplemental micronutrient intake
Portions of dairy products or calcium-fortified alternatives per day
0–1	474/2928 (16.2%)	1.00		1.00
2	460/3254 (14.1%)	0.86 (0.75–0.99)	0.04	0.88 (0.76–1.02)	0.08
3–5	389/2650 (14.7%)	0.90 (0.78–1.04)	0.17	0.92 (0.79–1.07)	0.29
≥ 6	368/2269 (16.2%)	1.03 (0.88–1.20)	0.71	1.04 (0.89–1.22)	0.63
p for trend			0.71		0.62
Medical conditions and prescribed medication use
BMI, kg/m²
< 25	741/5424 (13.7%)	1.00		1.00
25–30	604/3586 (16.8%)	1.27 (1.13–1.43)	< 0.001	1.25 (1.10–1.41)	< 0.001
> 30	347/2096 (16.6%)	1.19 (1.03–1.37)	0.01	1.23 (1.06–1.43)	0.01
p for trend			0.002		0.001
COPD
No	1656/10,917 (15.2%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	40/213 (18.8%)	1.36 (0.95–1.93)	0.09	1.41 (0.98–2.04)	0.07
Paracetamol
No	1643/10,691 (15.4%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	53/439 (12.1%)	0.75 (0.56–1.01)	0.06	0.71 (0.53–0.97)	0.03
Sex hormone therapy
No	1551 (15.1%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	145 (17.4%)	1.18 (0.97–1.43)	0.10	1.25 (1.02–1.52)	0.03
Vitamin D (over the counter or prescribed)
No	1066/7300 (14.6%)	1.00		1.00
Yes	630/3830 (16.4%)	1.10 (0.99–1.23)	0.08	1.16 (1.03–1.30)	0.01
Follow-up duration (days)		1.003 (1.002–1.004)	< 0.001	1.003 (1.003–1.004)	< 0.001

Descriptive data are n/N (%) indicating number of seropositive participants (n) and total per category (N)
BMI body mass index, BTEC Business and Technology Education Council, COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, OR odds ratio
^aAdjusted for age, sex and duration of follow-up
^bAdjusted for all factors shown and duration of follow-up. The fully adjusted analysis includes 10,734 participants with data available for all factors
^cSouth Asian indicates people who self-identified their ethnic origin as Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi
^dThe 1094 participants with unknown or missing travel status were included in the analysis as a separate category

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