Causal effects of COVID-19 on structural changes in specific brain regions: a Mendelian randomization study

Table 2 Heterogeneity and pleiotropy tests of the causal effects of COVID-19 on brain structures

Exposures	Cochrane’s Q test		MR-Egger intercept test		MRPRESSO global test p value
Outcomes	Q-value	p_Q	Intercept	p_intercept	MRPRESSO global test p value
COVID-19 vs. general population
Thickness of caudal middle frontal gyrus	36.5379	0.1040	− 0.0003	0.5605	0.0470
Hospitalized COVID-19 vs. general population
Thickness of lateral orbitofrontal gyrus	22.6627	0.5973	− 0.0002	0.7648	0.5780
Surface area of middle temporal gyrus	25.8789	0.4141	− 0.8634	0.5589	0.4400
Hospitalized COVID-19 vs. non-hospitalized COVID-19
Thickness of rostral middle frontal gyrus	15.6886	0.6779	− 0.0002	0.7609	0.6830
Severe COVID-19 vs. general population
Thickness of cuneus	43.8548	0.2371	0.0006	0.2634	0.2640
Volume of hippocampus	34.0941	0.5117	− 3.1943	0.2435	0.5160
Severe COVID-19 with respiratory failure vs. general population
Thickness of rostral middle frontal gyrus	6.7957	0.9124	0	0.9628	0.8080
Thickness of caudal middle frontal gyrus	16.9137	0.2033	− 0.0005	0.5768	0.2750
Surface area of pericalcarine	7.5854	0.8695	1.6803	0.2526	0.9240
Surface area of superior parietal gyrus	10.6660	0.6393	1.6369	0.5755	0.7390
Critical COVID-19 vs. general population
Thickness of middle temporal gyrus	76.1485	0.8680	0.0001	0.6839	0.8910
Surface area of middle temporal gyrus	138.3960	0.0010	1.1069	0.2578	0.0010
Surface area of parahippocampal gyrus	120.8511	0.0199	0.2390	0.4051	0.0130
Surface area of insula	96.8868	0.3169	0.0544	0.9242	0.3400

Abbreviations: COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019, MR-PRESSO Mendelian randomization-pleiotropy residual sum and outlier

ISSN: 1741-7015