Table 1 Characteristics of study cohort at baseline

Mean age [SD]

40.92 (16.54)

67.13 (14.10)

42.75 (17.69)

Sex

 Male

262,431 (41.90)

26,314 (56.18)

288,745 (42.89)

Read codes for depression

 Major depression

430,221 (68.69)

27,834 (59.42)

458,055 (68.04)

 Minor depression

176,528 (28.18)

17,456 (37.27)

193,984 (28.82)

 Other

19,586 (3.13)

1,552 (3.31)

21,138 (3.14)

PHQ-9 baseline [SD]

N 133,939

N 10,408

N 144,347

17.17 (4.92)

16.07 (5.22)

17.09 (4.95)

Year of diagnosis

 1998 to 2005

190,673 (30.44)

7,167 (15.30)

197,840 (29.39)

 2006 to 2010

126,689 (20.23)

12,728 (27.17)

139,417 (20.71)

 2011 to 2015

145,690 (23.26)

13,866 (29.60)

159,556 (23.70)

 2016 to 2020

163,283 (26.07)

13,081 (27.93)

176,364 (26.20)

Body Mass Index [SD]

N 481,533

N 42,587

N 524,120

26.01 (5.85)

28.77 (6.16)

26.24 (5.93)

Smoking (cigarettes/day)

N 574,590

N 45,707

N 620,297

 Non-smoker

279,118 (48.58)

20,821 (45.55)

299,939 (48.35)

 Ex-smoker

102,395 (17.82)

15,223 (33.31)

117,618 (18.96)

 Light-smoker (1–9)

176,979 (30.80)

9,031 (19.76)

186,010 (29.99)

 Moderate-smoker (10–19)

11,374 (1.98)

400 (0.88)

11,774 (1.90)

 Heavy-smoker (≥ 20)

4,724 (0.82)

232 (0.51)

4,956 (0.80)

Alcohol (daily units)

N 311,478

N 28,639

N 340,117

 Non-drinker/trivial (< 1)

170,934 (54.88)

15,722 (54.90)

186,656 (54.88)

 Light (1–2)

103,715 (33.30)

8,737 (30.51)

112,452 (33.06)

 Medium (3–6)

27,427 (8.81)

3,299 (11.52)

30,726 (9.03)

 Heavy (7–9)

4,233 (1.36)

459 (1.60)

4,692 (1.38)

 Very heavy (> 9)

5,169 (1.66)

422 (1.47)

5,591 (1.64)

Ethnic group

N 454,840

N 38,483

N 493,323

 White

395,624 (86.98)

34,237 (88.97)

429,861 (87.14)

 Indian

7,104 (1.56)

797 (2.07)

7,901 (1.60)

 Pakistani

7494 (1.65)

767 (1.99)

8,261 (1.67)

 Bangladeshi

4,987 (1.10)

609 (1.58)

5,596 (1.13)

 Other Asian

6,674 (1.47)

531 (1.38)

7,205 (1.46)

 Caribbean

5,551 (1.22)

452 (1.17)

6,003 (1.22)

 Black African

8,004 (1.76)

351 (0.91)

8,355 (1.69)

 Chinese

2,010 (0.44)

59 (0.15)

2,069 (0.42)

 Other

17,392 (3.82)

680 (1.77)

18,072 (3.66)

Townsend deprivation score (in fifths)

N 624,118

N 46,770

N 670,888

 1 (least deprived)

127,305 (20.40)

11,545 (24.68)

138,850 (20.70)

 2

132,005 (21.15)

10,746 (22.98)

142,751 (21.28)

 3

131,087 (21.00)

9,683 (20.70)

140,770 (20.98)

 4

121,405 (19.45)

8,222 (17.58)

129,627 (19.32)

 5 (most deprived)

112,316 (18.00)

6,574 (14.06)

118,890 (17.72)

Region of England

 East Midlands

23,054 (3.68)

1,136 (2.43)

24,190 (3.59)

 East of England

23,486 (3.75)

1,742 (3.72)

25,228 (3.75)

 London

130,577 (20.85)

8,469 (18.08)

139,046 (20.66)

 North-East

21,708 (3.47)

1,687 (3.60)

23,395 (3.48)

 North-West

122,774 (19.60)

11,283 (24.09)

134,057 (19.91)

 South-Central

80,591 (12.87)

5,183 (11.06)

85,774 (12.74)

 South-East

61,619 (9.84)

4,902 (10.46)

66,521 (9.88)

 South-West

71,044 (11.34)

4,706 (10.05)

75,750 (11.25)

 West Midlands

60,420 (9.65)

5,490 (11.72)

65,910 (9.79)

 Yorkshire and Humber

31,062 (4.96)

2,244 (4.79)

33,306 (4.95)

Comorbidities at baseline

 Coronary heart disease

9,030 (1.44)

14,068 (30.03)

23,098 (3.43)

 Stroke

8,934 (1.43)

8,414 (17.96)

17,348 (2.58)

 Diabetes

14,784 (2.36)

14,879 (31.76)

29,663 (4.41)

 Epilepsy

7,911 (1.26)

953 (2.03)

8,864 (1.32)

 Hypothyroidism

16,792 (2.68)

4,076 (8.70)

20,868 (3.10)

 Arthritis

32,637 (5.21)

11,411 (24.36)

44,048 (6.54)

 Anxiety

73,684 (11.76)

5,230 (11.17)

78,914 (11.72)

 Migraine

37,411 (5.97)

2,287 (4.88)

39,698 (5.90)

 Cancer

40,233 (6.42)

8,789 (18.76)

49,022 (7.28)

 Asthma

93,238 (14.89)

8,451 (18.04)

101,689 (15.11)

 Renal failure

1,339 (0.21)

803 (1.71)

2,142 (0.32)

 Liver failure

4,125 (0.66)

1,122 (2.40)

5,247 (0.78)

 Osteoporosis

5,939 (0.95)

1,909 (4.08)

7,848 (1.17)

 Suicidality

16,807 (2.68)

677 (1.45)

17,484 (2.60)

Antidepressant category at baseline

 SSRIs

539,367 (86.11)

37,569 (80.20)

oth

 TCAs

43,420 (6.93)

3,160 (6.75)

46,580 (6.92)

 MAOIs

77 (0.01)

8 (0.02)

85 (0.01)

 Other ADs

43,471 (6.94)

6,105 (13.03)

49,576 (7.36)

Use of other drugs at baseline

 Antihypertensives

26,283 (4.20)

24,753 (52.84)

51,036 (7.58)

 Aspirin

11,672 (1.86)

17,203 (36.73)

28,875 (4.29)

 Anticoagulants

4,492 (0.72)

3,523 (7.52)

8,015 (1.19)

 NSAIDs

22,503 (3.59)

2,466 (5.26)

24,969 (3.71)

 Anticonvulsants

8,247 (1.32)

2,223 (4.75)

10,470 (1.56)

 Hypnotics

47,389 (7.57)

4,788 (10.22)

52,177 (7.75)

 Bisphosphonates

1,648 (0.26)

661 (1.41)

2,309 (0.34)

 Contraceptives

39,530 (6.31)

143 (0.31)

39,673 (5.89)