Table 3 Meta-analyses effectiveness results: recovery outcomes

Recovery

 Lloyd-Evans et al. (2014) [22]

Self-rated recovery (post-intervention)

4 (1066)

Adults with SMI or those using secondary MH services

SMD

 − 0.24 (− 0.39, − 0.09)

I² = 27%, χ² = 4.09 (p = 0.25)

Low

Significant improvement in self-rated recovery

 Lyons et al. (2021) [35]^b

Recovery (post-intervention)

5 (1265)

Adults with any mental health condition (including SMI)

SMD

0.18 (0.07, 0.29), p = 0.002

I² = 0%, χ² = 4.01 (df = 4)

Critically low

Significant improvement in recovery post-intervention

 Peck et al. (2023) [40]^a

Self-perceived recovery (time frame not stated)

6 (1254)

Adults, majority diagnosed with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder or major affective disorders

SMD, Z

0.29 (0.12, 0.46), Z = 3.33 (p = 0.0009)

I² = 48%, Tau² = 0.02; χ² = 9.65 (df = 5, p = 0.09);

Critically low

Significant improvement in participants’ self-perceived recovery

 Wang et al. (2022) [44]

Recovery (last follow-up)

6 (1385)

Adult individuals or family members with SMI

SMD

0.21 (0.05, 0.36); Z = 2.67, p = 0.008

I² = 41%; Tau² = 0.01; χ² = 8.46 (df = 5, p = 0.13)

Critically low

Significant improvement in recovery

 Sun et al. (2022) [43]^b

Recovery (post-intervention)

3 (197)

Adults and adolescents with any mental health problem including MH service users without reported diagnoses

SMD

0.14 (− 0.14, 0.42), p = 0.34)

I² = 0%, χ² = 0.43 (df = 2, p = 0.81)

Critically low

No effect

Recovery: follow-up

 Lloyd-Evans et al. (2014) [22]

Self-rated recovery (6 months follow-up)

2 (757)

Adults with SMI or those using secondary MH services

SMD

 − 0.23 (− 0.37, − 0.09)

I² = 0%, χ² = 0.77 (p = 0.40)

Low

Significant improvement in self-rated recovery

 Lyons et al. (2021) [35]^b

Recovery (3–6 months follow-up)

4 (983)

Adults with any mental health condition (including SMI)

SMD

0.21 (0.08, 0.34), p = 0.002

I² = 5%, χ² = 3.16 (df = 3)

Critically low

Significant improvement in recovery

 White et al. (2020) [45]^a

Recovery (12–18 months follow-up)

3 (593)

Adults using mental health services with any diagnoses

SMD, Z

0.22 (0.01, 0.42), Z = 2.04, p = 0.04

I² = 38%, Tau² = 0.01; χ² = 3.11 (df = 2, p = 0.21)

Critically low

Significant improvement in recovery

 Chien et al. (2019) [21]

Recovery (medium term, 1–6 months follow-up)

3 (557)

Adults with schizophrenia or similar SMI

MD, Z

2.69 (− 0.82,6.20), Z = 1.5 (p = 0.13)

I² = 33.33%, Tau² = 3.52, χ² = 3 (df = 2, p = 0.22)

High

No effect

Personal recovery

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Personal recovery (post-intervention)

19 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.15 (0.04–0.27), p = 0.01

I² = 43% (95% CI 1–67)

Low

Significant improvement in personal recovery

Personal recovery: follow-up

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Personal recovery (6–9 months follow-up)

12 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.10 (− 0.10, 0.30), p = 0.28

I² = 64% (95% CI 32–81)

Low

No effect

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Personal recovery (12–18 months follow-up)

7 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.54 (− 0.33, 1.41), p = 0.18

I² = 93 (95% CI 89–96)

Low

No effect

Functional recovery

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Functional recovery (post-intervention)

25 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.08 (− 0.02, 0.18), p = 0.11

I² = 36% (95% CI 0–61)

Low

No effect

Functional recovery: follow-up

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Functional recovery (6–9 months follow-up)

17 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.14 (0.01, 0.27), p = 0.03

I² = 39% (95% CI 0–66)

Low

Significant improvement in functional recovery

 Smit et al. (2022) [52]

Functional recovery (12–18 months follow-up)

10 (NR)

Adults with any mental health diagnosis

Hedges’ g

0.38 (− 0.21, 0.98), p = 0.18

I² = 91% (95% CI 85–94)

Low

No effect