Table 1 Clinical characteristics and summary findings of these ASD or ADHD studies included in this meta-analysis

ASD studies

 Raznahan et al. (2013) [30]

66 (66)

3.8 (1.0)

NA

NA

NA

29 (29)

3.8 (1.1)

NA

CIVET

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

ASD > TDC: L SFG, superior temporal sulcus; R SFG, MFG, superior temporal sulcus, rostral intraparietal sulcus

 Duerden et al. (2013) [31]

33 (29)

10.7 (2.5)

104.0 (18.3)

NA

Medication-free

30 (26)

10.7 (2.5)

113.6 (13.7)

CIVET

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

-

 Schaer et al. (2013) [32]

11 (8)

12.9 (2.7)

79.4 (18.1)

NA

NA

11 (8)

12.7 (2.7)

110.5 (13.3)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Dierker et al. (2015) [33]

34 (28)

11.4 (1.9)

111.5 (12.5)

NA

NA

32 (23)

11.3 (1.8)

114.9 (11.3)

Freesurfer

p < 0.025 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Foster et al. (2015) [9]

38 (38)

12.4 (2.4)

102.5 (17.0)

Pure

NA

46 (46)

12.6 (2.6)

113.1 (12.0)

CIVET

p < 0.001 (uncorrected)

3.0 T

ASD > TDC: L IFG;

ASD < TDC: R angular gyrus

 Sussman et al. (2015) [34]

72 (61)

NA

NA

NA

NA

138 (116)

NA

NA

CIVET

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Yang et al. (2016) [35]

60 (60)

8.4 (2.1)

103.1 (14.5)

NA

NA

41 (41)

8.8 (2.3)

107.0 (15.0)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Tanigawa et al. (2018) [36]

16 (16)

13.4 (1.1)

112.7 (13.8)

Pure

NA

17 (17)

13.4 (1.2)

118.4 (15.0)

Freesurfer

p < 0.01 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Kohli et al. (2019) [37]

Data from SDSU

64 (52)

13.3 (2.7)

106.7 (16.9)

NA

NA

64 (55)

13.5 (3.0)

106.5 (14.1)

Freesurfer

p < 0.01 (corrected)

3.0 T

ASD < TDC: R insula

Data from NYU

31 (31)

11.4 (2.8)

103.2 (10.1)

NA

NA

31 (31)

11.8 (2.6)

110.5 (11.9)

Freesurfer

p < 0.01 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Yin et al. (2022) [38]

Data from SI

18 (12)

12.0 (3.5)

99.9 (18.8)

ADHD, anxiety disorder

NA

18 (12)

12.7 (NA)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

-

Data from RU

15 (12)

12.7 (4.6)

100.9 (14.4)

ADHD, anxiety disorder

NA

15 (8)

10.9 (NA)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

ADHD studies

 Qiu et al. (2011) [39]

15 (15)

12.7 (1.8)

NA

Pure

Medication-free

15 (15)

13.2 (1.7)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (uncorrected)

3.0 T

ADHD < TDC: R frontal lobe, L frontal lobe, R cingulate cortex

 de Zeeuw et al. (2012) [40]

99 (87)

10.5 (2.0)

101.6 (16.0)

ODD, CD

Medication-free

101 (85)

10.1 (1.8)

106.0 (12.9)

CLASP^b

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

-

 Hoekzema et al. (2012) [41]

43 (35)

11.6 (2.9)

NA

Pure

Medicated (88%)

41 (28)

11.2 (3.0)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

ADHD < TDC: L IPL, lingual gyrus, pre-CG, OFG; R pre-CG, OFG, IPL

 Saute et al. (2014) [42]

18 (11)

12.1 (3.2)

93.4 (9.2)

Epilepsy

Medicated (39%)

46 (19)

13.1 (3.3)

110.2 (11.2)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

1.5 T

ADHD < TDC: L SPL, para-CG, insula; R IPL, pars opercularis, SFG

 Colak et al. (2019) [43]

13 (13)

16.0 (1.2)

NA

Pure

Medication-free

13 (13)

16.5 (1.3)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

ADHD < TDC: L caudal MFG, R pre-CG

 Lu et al. (2019) [44]

53 (53)

10.4 (2.1)

104.0 (5.1)

Pure

Mediation-naïve

53 (53)

10.9 (2.3)

107.6 (6.6)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Vetter et al. (2020) [45]

Pure ADHD

36 (36)

13.0 (1.6)

107.0 (8.0)

Pure

Medication-free

30 (30)

13.6 (1.6)

110.0 (8.0)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

ADHD + ODD/CD

26 (26)

13.0 (1.2)

106.0 (13.0)

ODD, CD

Medication-free

30 (30)

13.6 (1.6)

110.0 (8.0)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

ADHD > TDC: R rostral MFG

 Lee et al. (2021) [46]

19 (14)

13.5 (0.9)

113.8 (11.5)

Pure

Medicated (100%)

20 (11)

13.4 (1.2)

110.7 (15.2)

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-

 Sarabin et al. (2023) [47]

61 (36)

9.9 (0.7)

NA

behavioral disorder, anxiety disorder

NA

61 (38)

10.0 (0.7)

NA

Freesurfer

p < 0.05 (corrected)

3.0 T

-