Table 2 Factors associated with high-dose opioids reported by individual studies

 Chang, 2018a [30]

State of residence

 California

47,446 (31%)

1,416,000 (36%)

0.87 (0.86, 0.87)

NA

 Florida

54,338 (36%)

1,207,982 (31%)

1.16 (1.15, 1.17)

 Georgia

20,692 (14%)

689,886 (18%)

0.77 (0.76, 0.78)

 Maryland

12,487 (8%)

250,868 (6%)

1.29 (1.26, 1.31)

 Washington

15,866 (11%)

330,335 (8%)

1.24 (1.22, 1.26)

 Kobus, 2012 [32]

Insurance coverage

 Medicare

154 (34%)

1352 (28%)

1.21 (1.06 to 1.39)

NA

Ethnicity

 Unknown/declined to answer

64 (14%)

879 (18%)

0.77 (0.61, 0.98)

NA

 Campbell, 2015 [34]

Antidepressants

246 (58%)

323 (49%)

1.18 (1.06 to 1.32)

NA

Type of opioid drug

 Morphine

86 (20%)

75 (11%)

1.78 (1.34 to 2.37)

NA

ICD-10 lifetime pharmaceutical opioid dependence

49 (12%)

28 (4%)

2.72 (1.7 to 4.25)

NA

ICD-10 12-month pharmaceutical opioid dependence

26 (6%)

13 (2%)

3.11 (1.61 to 5.98)

NA

Prescribed opioid difficulty scale (PODS) intermediate-high (≥ 8)

297 (70%)

367 (56%)

1.26 (1.15 to 1.38)

NA

Past 3-month tampering

38 (9%)

29 (4%)

2.03 (1.27 to 3.25)

22 (13 to 64)

Past 3-month different drug route

7 (2%)

1 (0.2%)

10.87 (1.34 to 88.04)

NA

 Kobus, 2012 [32]

Long-acting opioids

400 (88%)

1637 (34%)

2.60 (2.47, 2.74)

NA

 Chang, 2018b [4]

Opioid disorders

530 (19%)

1243 (1%)

28.95 (26.34, 31.82)

NA

 Campbell, 2015 [34]

Illicit drug use past 12 months

71 (17%)

67 (10%)

11.03 (5.75 to 21.14)

NA

 Kobus, 2012 [32]

Substance use disorder

141 (31%)

1151 (24%)

1.30 (1.13 to 1.51)

NA

 Campbell, 2015 [34]

Back or neck problems

344 (81%)

484 (73%)

1.10 (1.03 to 1.18)

NA

Frequent/severe headaches

134 (32%)

170 (26%)

1.22 (1.01 to 1.48)

NA

 Chang, 2018a [30]

Opioids from ≥ 4 unique prescribers and pharmacies over 90 days

1176 (0.78%)

1948 (0.05%)

15.6 (14.51 to 16.76)

137 (129 to 145)

 Chang, 2018b [4]

> 1 Hospitalizations

 Concurrent 2012

443 (16%)

17,061 (9%)

1.76 (1.62, 1.92)

14 (12 to 18)

 Prospective 2013

396 (14%)

11,110 (6%)

2.42 (2.21, 2.66)

12 (10 to 14)

 Kobus, 2012 [32]

Any pain clinic visits 6 months before/after index date

104 (23%)

530 (11%)

2.09 (1.73 to 2.51)

8 (6 to 12)

Filled opioid prescription 5 days after emergency department visit

285 (63%)

2696 (56%)

1.12 (1.04 to 1.21)

14 (9 to 46)

 Kobus, 2012 [32]

Posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic code 309.81

20 (4%)

96 (2%)

2.21 (1.38 to 3.55)

NA

Mean (%)

Mean (%)

RR (95% CI)

 Chang, 2018a [30]

Proportion of prescriptions from high-risk* prescribers

122,159 (81%)

973,865 (25%)

3.24 (3.23 to 3.25)

NA

Count (%)

Count (%)

RR (95% CI)

100% of opioid prescriptions from high-risk* prescribers

77,217 (51%)

572,633 (15%)

3.48 (3.46 to 3.50)

NA

50–99% of prescriptions from high-risk* prescribers

51,277 (34%)

471,351 (12%)

2.81 (2.79 to 2.83)

NA