Fig. 1

CSD may significantly increase the risk of cognitive decline. The significant differences in MMSE, FAQ, MoCA, and ADNI-MEM between the normal sleep and CSD groups at baseline, except for the ADAS-cog score. NS p > 0.05, *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001 (A1–A5). The differences in MMSE, ADAS-cog, FAQ, MoCA, and ADNI-MEM at follow-up between the two groups based on the linear mixed-effects model after adjustment for age, education years, sex, and APOE status. There is no significant difference in the slope of the lines between the two groups (B1–B5). A Kaplan–Meier curve showed that the CSD group was associated with a higher risk of cognitive progression than the normal sleep group (C). The Cox proportional hazards model estimated the risk of cognitive progression in CSD after adjustment for age, education years, sex, APOE status, baseline MMSE, CSF t-tau, CSF p-tau, and multiple psychiatric symptoms (D)