Xu G, Strathearn L, Liu B, Yang B, Bao W. Twenty-year trends in diagnosed attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among US children and adolescents, 1997-2016. JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(4):e181471.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Deberdt W, Thome J, Lebrec J, Kraemer S, Fregenal I, Ramos-Quiroga JA, et al. Prevalence of ADHD in nonpsychotic adult psychiatric care (ADPSYC): a multinational cross-sectional study in Europe. BMC Psychiatry. 2015;15:242.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Thomas R, Sanders S, Doust J, Beller E, Glasziou P. Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015;135(4):e994–1001.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Posner J, Polanczyk GV, Sonuga-Barke E. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet. 2020;395(10222):450–62.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(6):942–8.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Rydell M, Lundstrom S, Gillberg C, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. Has the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder phenotype become more common in children between 2004 and 2014? Trends over 10 years from a Swedish general population sample. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2018;59(8):863–71.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE, Smoller JW, Goralnick JJ, Holmgren MA, et al. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(11):1313–23.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Martin J, Walters RK, Demontis D, Mattheisen M, Lee SH, Robinson E, et al. A genetic investigation of sex bias in the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2018;83(12):1044–53.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Demontis D, Walters RK, Martin J, Mattheisen M, Als TD, Agerbo E, et al. Discovery of the first genome-wide significant risk loci for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Nat Genet. 2019;51(1):63–75.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Yengo L, Sidorenko J, Kemper KE, Zheng Z, Wood AR, Weedon MN, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies for height and body mass index in approximately 700000 individuals of European ancestry. Hum Mol Genet. 2018;27(20):3641–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hyytinen A, Ilmakunnas P, Johansson E, Toivanen O. Heritability of lifetime earnings. J Econ Inequal. 2019;17(3):319–35.
Article
Google Scholar
Silventoinen K, Jelenkovic A, Sund R, Latvala A, Honda C, Inui F, et al. Genetic and environmental variation in educational attainment: an individual-based analysis of 28 twin cohorts. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):12681.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Plomin R, Deary IJ. Genetics and intelligence differences: five special findings. Mol Psychiatry. 2015;20(1):98–108.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Russell AE, Ford T, Williams R, Russell G. The association between socioeconomic disadvantage and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2016;47(3):440–58.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Russell AE, Ford T, Russell G. Socioeconomic associations with ADHD: findings from a mediation analysis. PLoS One. 2015;10(6):e0128248.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Choi Y, Shin J, Cho KH, Park E-C. Change in household income and risk for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during childhood: a nationwide population-based cohort study. J Epidemiol. 2017;27(2):56–62.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Torvik FA, Eilertsen EM, McAdams TA, Gustavson K, Zachrisson HD, Brandlistuen R, et al. Mechanisms linking parental educational attainment with child ADHD, depression, and academic problems: a study of extended families in The Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2020;61(9):1009–18.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Miller LL, Gustafsson HC, Tipsord J, Song M, Nousen E, Dieckmann N, et al. Is the association of ADHD with socio-economic disadvantage explained by child comorbid externalizing problems or parent ADHD? J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2018;46(5):951–63.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Harpin VA. The effect of ADHD on the life of an individual, their family, and community from preschool to adult life. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(Suppl 1):i2–7.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Kuriyan AB, Pelham WE Jr, Molina BS, Waschbusch DA, Gnagy EM, Sibley MH, et al. Young adult educational and vocational outcomes of children diagnosed with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2013;41(1):27–41.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Bridgett DJ, Walker ME. Intellectual functioning in adults with ADHD: a meta-analytic examination of full scale IQ differences between adults with and without ADHD. Psychol Assess. 2006;18(1):1–14.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Usami M. Functional consequences of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder on children and their families. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2016;70(8):303–17.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Stephen Burgess SGT. Mendelian randomization: methods for using genetic variants in causal estimation: Chapman and Hall/CRC; 2015.
Zheng J, Baird D, Borges MC, Bowden J, Hemani G, Haycock P, et al. Recent developments in mendelian randomization studies. Curr Epidemiol Rep. 2017;4(4):330–45.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Dardani C, Riglin L, Leppert B, Sanderson E, Rai D, Howe LD, et al. Is genetic liability to ADHD and ASD causally linked to educational attainment? Int J Epidemiology. 2022;50(6):2011–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyab107.
Burgess S, Butterworth A, Thompson SG. Mendelian randomization analysis with multiple genetic variants using summarized data. Genet Epidemiol. 2013;37(7):658–65.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Townsend P, Phillimore P, Beattie A. Health and deprivation: inequality and the north. London: Croom Helm; 1987.
Google Scholar
Lee JJ, Wedow R, Okbay A, Kong E, Maghzian O, Zacher M, et al. Gene discovery and polygenic prediction from a genome-wide association study of educational attainment in 1.1 million individuals. Nat Genet. 2018;50(8):1112–21.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Savage JE, Jansen PR, Stringer S, Watanabe K, Bryois J, de Leeuw CA, et al. Genome-wide association meta-analysis in 269,867 individuals identifies new genetic and functional links to intelligence. Nat Genet. 2018;50(7):912–9.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hemani G, Zheng J, Elsworth B, Wade KH, Haberland V, Baird D, Laurin C, Burgess S, Bowden J, Langdon R, Tan VY, Yarmolinsky J, Shihab HA, Timpson NJ, Evans DM, Relton C, Martin RM, Smith GD, Gaunt TR, Haycock PC. The MR-Base platform supports systematic causal inference across the human phenome. Elife. 2018;7:e34408. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.34408.
Bulik-Sullivan B, Finucane HK, Anttila V, Gusev A, Day FR, Loh PR, et al. An atlas of genetic correlations across human diseases and traits. Nat Genet. 2015;47(11):1236–41.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Burgess S, Thompson SG. Multivariable Mendelian randomization: the use of pleiotropic genetic variants to estimate causal effects. Am J Epidemiol. 2015;181(4):251–60.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Burgess S, Bowden J, Fall T, Ingelsson E, Thompson SG. Sensitivity analyses for robust causal inference from Mendelian randomization analyses with multiple genetic variants. Epidemiology. 2017;28(1):30–42.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Burgess S, Labrecque JA. Mendelian randomization with a binary exposure variable: interpretation and presentation of causal estimates. Eur J Epidemiol. 2018;33(10):947–52.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Verbanck M, Chen CY, Neale B, Do R. Detection of widespread horizontal pleiotropy in causal relationships inferred from Mendelian randomization between complex traits and diseases. Nat Genet. 2018;50(5):693–8.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Burgess S, Foley CN, Allara E, Staley JR, Howson JMM. A robust and efficient method for Mendelian randomization with hundreds of genetic variants. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):376.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Qi G, Chatterjee N. Mendelian randomization analysis using mixture models for robust and efficient estimation of causal effects. Nat Commun. 2019;10(1):1941.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Zhu Z, Zheng Z, Zhang F, Wu Y, Trzaskowski M, Maier R, et al. Causal associations between risk factors and common diseases inferred from GWAS summary data. Nat Commun. 2018;9(1):224.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Hartwig FP, Davey Smith G, Bowden J. Robust inference in summary data Mendelian randomization via the zero modal pleiotropy assumption. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46(6):1985–98.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Morrison J, Knoblauch N, Marcus JH, Stephens M, He X. Mendelian randomization accounting for correlated and uncorrelated pleiotropic effects using genome-wide summary statistics. Nat Genet. 2020;52(7):740–7.
Article
CAS
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Mitchell BL, Thorp JG, Evans DM, Nyholt DR, Martin NG, Lupton MK. Exploring the genetic relationship between hearing impairment and Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2020;12(1):e12108.
Google Scholar
Yavorska OO, Burgess S. MendelianRandomization: an R package for performing Mendelian randomization analyses using summarized data. Int J Epidemiol. 2017;46:1734–9.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Pievsky MA, McGrath RE. The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of meta-analyses. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2018;33(2):143–57.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Hoff ER, KM. Language development: influence of socio-economic status. In: Wright J, editor. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences: Elsevier; 2015. p. 324–8.
Hjern A, Weitoft GR, Lindblad F. Social adversity predicts ADHD-medication in school children--a national cohort study. Acta Paediatr. 2010;99(6):920–4.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Nunn SPT, Kritsotakis EI, Harpin V, Parker J. Social gradients in the receipt of medication for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and young people in Sheffield. BJPsych Open. 2020;6(2):e14.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Bourdieu P. Distinction : a social critique of the judgement of taste. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; 1984. p. xiv, 613.
Google Scholar
Iamblichus, Dillon JM, Hershbell JP. On the pythagorean way of life. Texts and translations. Atlanta: Scholars Press; 1991. p. 31–83.
Google Scholar
Huffman CA, Philolaus. Philolaus of croton: pythagorean and presocratic: a commentary on the fragments and testimonia with interpretive essays. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press; 1993. p. 44.
Google Scholar
Zhmud′ LIA, Windle K, Ireland R. Pythagoras and the early pythagoreans. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 175.
Book
Google Scholar
Lee VE, Burkam DT. Inequality at the starting gate: social background differences in achievement as children begin school. Washington, D.C.: Economic Policy Institute; 2002. p. ix, 102.
Google Scholar
Karlstad O, Furu K, Stoltenberg C, Haberg SE, Bakken IJ. ADHD treatment and diagnosis in relation to children's birth month: nationwide cohort study from Norway. Scandinavian J Public Health. 2017;45(4):343–9.
Article
Google Scholar
Diefenbach C, Schmidt MF, Huss M, König J, Urschitz MS, ikidS Study Group. Age at school entry and reported symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity in first graders: results of the prospective cohort study ikidS. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-021-01813-7. Online ahead of print.
Isaacs JB, Magnuson KA. Income and education as predictors of children's school readiness. The Social Genome Project; 2011.
Google Scholar
Ren L, Hu BY, Zhang X. Disentangling the relations between differentcomponents of family socioeconomic status and Chinese preschoolers’ school readiness. Fam Process. 2020;60(1):216–34.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Rieppi R, Greenhill LL, Ford RE, Chuang S, Wu M, Davies M, et al. Socioeconomic status as a moderator of ADHD treatment outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2002;41(3):269–77.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar
Pereira Ribeiro J, Arthur EJ, Gluud C, Simonsen E, Storebo OJ. Does methylphenidate work in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder? Pediatr Rep. 2021;13(3):434–43.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Repantis D, Bovy L, Ohla K, Kuhn S, Dresler M. Cognitive enhancement effects of stimulants: a randomized controlled trial testing methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine. Psychopharmacology. 2021;238(2):441–51.
Article
CAS
PubMed
Google Scholar
Pierce BL, Burgess S. Efficient design for Mendelian randomization studies: subsample and 2-sample instrumental variable estimators. Am J Epidemiol. 2013;178(7):1177–84.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Burgess S, Davies NM, Thompson SG. Bias due to participant overlap in two-sample Mendelian randomization. Genet Epidemiol. 2016;40(7):597–608.
Article
PubMed
PubMed Central
Google Scholar
Thapar A, Rice F. Family-based designs that disentangle inherited factors from pre- and postnatal environmental exposures: in vitro fertilization, discordant sibling pairs, maternal versus paternal comparisons, and adoption designs. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2021;11(3):a038877. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a038877.
Treur JL, Demontis D, Smith GD, Sallis H, Richardson TG, Wiers RW, et al. Investigating causality between liability to ADHD and substance use, and liability to substance use and ADHD risk, using Mendelian randomization. Addict Biol. 2021;26(1):e12849.
Article
PubMed
Google Scholar